Chapter 5: Language Variation and Change

Key Topics

  • linguistic variables and social meaning

  • data collection: goals and methods

  • what correlations can tell us

  • Drawing boundaries: Regional Variation and dialects

  • Defining social class categories and membership

  • First wave: correlations

  • Second wave: ethnographic information

  • Third wave: agency

  • The role of language users in language change

  • Gender and language change; assumptions about gender roles

  • Changes in an individual’s speech over a lifetime-age-grading

The kind of sociolinguistic investigation we will discuss in this chapter is often called variationist sociolinguistics and it is, for some sociolinguists, the ‘heart of sociolinguistics’ (Chambers 2003, xix).

Variables and Correlations

  • a basic premise in variationist sociolinguistics is inherent variability: all languages contain variability, and no language user speaks the same all the time.

  • However, a word of caution is necessary: correlation is not the same as causation.

  • This means that while we may observe patterns of language use associated with certain social factors, we cannot assume that one directly influences the other without further investigation.

  • dependent variables and independent variables the linguistic variables is a dependent variable, the one we measure.

    • For instance, the pronunciation of -ing endings on English words (which we’ll refer to as the (ng) variable from now on) may have two variants, or two ways of being produced -[in] and [iņ].

    • each use may be dependent on another factor, which we call the independent variable

    • this can be a scoial factor, such as social class,age, etc., or linguistics context.

  • As Chambers (2003,26) expresses it,’socially significant linguistic variation requires correlation; the dependent (linguistic) variable must change when some indepent variable changes. This correlation highlights how language is not only a means of communication but also a reflection of social structures and identities. This intertwining of language and society illustrates how variations in speech can signal group membership, regional identity, and even social status.

Types of linguistic variables

  • the (ng) variable, mentioned above, has been widely used, Labov (2006,259) says it ‘has been found to have the greatest generality over the Engkush-speaking world, and has been the subject of the most fruitful study.’

  • other examples of phonological variables in English are the (h) variable in words like house and hospital, that is (h):[h} or ø; or the (t) variable in bet and better, that is, [t], [ř], or [?].

  • vowel variables used hae included the vowel (e) in words like pen and men; the (o) in dog, cuaght, and coffee, the (e) in beg; the (a) in back, bag,bad, and half; and the (u) in pull. Additionally, the (r) variable, which manifests in words like car and hard, can also exhibit significant variation, often pronounced as [r] or as a non-rhotic variant [ø] in certain dialects, illustrating the diverse phonetic landscape of English.

  • Unsurprising;y, these ‘brocatives’ are used much more among male speakers, with younger speakers using ‘bro’ more and variation amonth the variant ‘bro’ and ‘brah/bruh’ correlating with ethic group members, with young, non-caucasian men using ‘brah/bruh’ at the highest rates.

Indicators,markers, and stereotypes

  • An indicator is a linguistic variable to which little or no social imprt is attached.

    • for example, some speakers in North America distinguish the vowel in cot and caught and other do not; this is not salient to most nonlinguists

  • a marker can be quite noticeable and potent carries of social information

    • you do not always have to drop every g that is always singin’ and never saying singing

    • g-droping is a marker everywhee English is spoken

  • A stereotype is a popular and, therefore, conscious characterization of the speech of a particular group: New York boid for bird or Toitytoid Street fr 33rd Street, a Northumbrian Wot-cher (what cheer?) greeting; the British use of chap; or a Bostian’s Pahk the cah in Hahvahd Yahd.

    • A stereotype need not conform to reality; rather, it ofeers people a rough and ready categorization with all the attendant problems of such categorizations

Independent variables

  • linguistics constraints

    • a recent study ( Forrest and Wolfram 2019) looking at the ariation between -ing and -in’ in African American Language in Washington, DC and Detroit at two points in time reveals that internal factors playeda role.

  • There was also also some efect for the following place of articulation (i.e. assimilation), with -ing more likely preceding a velar and -in’ more likely preceing a coronal sound, although this was not statistically significant.

  • The study highlights the complex interplay between social and linguistic factors, suggesting that the choice between -ing and -in’ is influenced by both individual speaker characteristics and broader community norms.

Data Collection and Analysis

  • in sociolinguists, this task has two basic dimensions: devising some kind of plan for collecting relevant data, and the collecting such data from a representative sample of language users

The observer’s paradox

  • this is a basic scientific quandry, particulary observale in the social sciences where, in almsit everu posssib sutyation, there is one variable that cannot be controlled in every possible way, namely, the observers/recorders/analyst/invesigators themselves.

The sociolinguistic interview

  • to get more formal styles of pseech, inbestigators also ask reseaearch participants to do variious reading task: read a story passage, lists of words, and minimal pairs.

  • the texts are designed to contain words which illustarte important distinctions in the regional or social dialect being studied; or instances, if it is known that some speakers in the regional or social group of this speaker pronounce ‘cot’ and ‘caught’ with the same vowel, these words, or other words with these vowels, will be present in the reading materials, anf be presented as a minimal pair in the final task.

Sampling

  • another critical aspect of sociolinguistic research is sampling: finding a representative group of language users.

  • the best sample of all is a random sample

    • in a random smaple everyone in the population to be sampled has an equal change of being selected.

  • in contrast, in a judgement sample ( also known as wuota sample) the investigator choooses the subjects according to a set of criteria, for example, age,gender, social class, education, and so on.

Apparent time and real time

  • they may be apparent-time studies in which the subjects are grouped by age, for example, people in their 20s, 40s, 60s, and so on.

  • real-time studies elicit the same kind of date after an interval of say ten, twenty, or thirty years. If the same informants are involved , this would be in a panel study; if different people are used it would be in a trend sudy.

Doing Quantiive Research: What do the numbers really mean?

  • two important concepts in this research methodology are validity and reliability Validity in research is that your research methods enable you to draw conclusions about what you intend to study.

  • this is about validity; do comments people make when asked directly about how they feel about different ways od speaking relect their language attitudes, or are they more reflectuve of broader societal norms?

  • Reliabilty is how objectuve and consisten the measurements of the actual linguistic data are.

Regional Variation

  • In fact, it is a well-established part of the stufy of how language change over time, that is, od diachronic or historical linguistics, which examines the evolution of language forms and structures across different periods. This includes analyzing how regional dialects emerge and transform, often influenced by factors such as migration, social interaction, and cultural exchange.

  • Traditionally, dialect geography, as this area of linguistics study is kown, has employed assumptions and methods drawn deom historical linguistics, and many of its results have been used to confirm findings drawn deom other historical sources, for example, archeologcical findings, population studies, and written records.

mapping dialects

  • dialect geograapher have traditionally attempted to reproduce their finding on maps in what they call dialect atlases.

    • They try to show the geopgraphical boundaries of the distribution of a particular linguistic feature by drawing a line on a map. Such a line is called an isogloss: on one sidde of the line people say something one way, for exmaple, pronounce cot and caught the same, and on their other side they ise some other pronounciation, for example, distinguishing between the [a] sound in cot and that [ç] ound ing caught

  • om occasion, tough, a number coincide; that, there is a bundle of isoglosses. Such a buncl is oten said to mark a dialect boundary.

  • isoglosses can also show that a particular st if linguistic features appears to be spreading from one location, a focal area, into neighboring locations.

  • Alternatively, a particular area, a relic area, may show characteristics of being unaffected by changes spreading out from one or more neighboring areas.

    • places like London and Boston are obviously focal areas; placews like Marthas’s Vineyard in New england- it remained r-pronouncing in the 1930s and 1940s even as Boston dropped the prnounciation- and Devon in the extreme southwest of England are relic areas.

    • Wolfram (2004) calls the dialect of such an area a remnant dialecct and, in doing so, remind us that not everything in such a dialect is a relic of the past for such areas also have their own innocations.

    • These innovations can arise from internal developments or from external influences, resulting in a unique blend of historical and contemporary linguistic features.

Methods in dialectology

Sampling in Sociolinguistics

Sampling is a critical aspect of sociolinguistic research that involves finding a representative group of language users.

  • Random Sample: This is considered the best sampling method, where everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

  • Judgment Sample: Also known as quota sampling, the investigator chooses subjects based on specific criteria such as age, gender, social class, education, etc.

The Axiom of Categoricity

The Axiom of Categoricity is a principle suggesting that language users categorize linguistic features in specific, coherent groups. This axiom implies that for a meaningful analysis of language variation and change, it is essential to classify individuals according to their linguistic behavior and social identities. Such classifications help in understanding the interplay between language use and social factors, enabling researchers to draw broader conclusions about linguistic patterns within particular communities.

Dialect Mixture and Free Variation

Dialect Mixture: This term refers to a linguistic phenomenon where elements from different dialects blend together within a speech community. It often occurs in areas with significant migration and social interaction, leading to a new dialect or a hybrid form that contains features from multiple sources. This process highlights the dynamic nature of language and its adaptability to social changes.

Free Variation: Free variation is a term used to describe a situation in which two or more linguistic forms can be used interchangeably without a change in meaning or social significance. For instance, a speaker may choose to pronounce a certain variable in different ways depending on personal preference, regional influence, or other contextual factors. This variation underscores the inherent flexibility of language in social communication, allowing for individual expression while maintaining meaning.

Linguistic atlases

Linguistic atlases are tools used by dialect geographers to visually represent the geographical distribution of various linguistic features. They attempt to create maps that display the boundaries of different dialects based on specific linguistic variables. An important concept in this context is the **isogloss**, which is a line drawn on a map to denote where a particular linguistic feature is used or pronounced differently. On one side of the isogloss, speakers may exhibit one pronunciation (e.g., distinguishing between 'cot' and 'caught'), while on the other side, they may pronounce them the same. In addition, linguistic atlases may illustrate bundles of isoglosses that collectively mark a dialect boundary. These atlases can reveal patterns of language change and regional variation influenced by social factors, migration, and cultural exchange, providing insights into the dynamic evolution of language over time.

Social Variation

  • Refers to differences in language use across various social groups within a community.

  • Influenced by social factors such as:

    • Age

    • Gender

    • Ethnicity

    • Social class

  • Demonstrates how language can reflect and reinforce social identities.

  • Different social groups may exhibit distinct linguistic features, pronunciations, or syntactic structures.

  • Important in sociolinguistics for understanding language as a social marker.

  • Illustrates affiliations, group memberships, and broader societal values and norms.

  • Actiation problem: why do particular changes occur at a given place and time while others don’t?

  • Social class membership is a critical factor in social variation, influencing language use and attitudes.

  • Individuals from different social classes may adopt distinct linguistic features, reflecting their group identity and social standing.

  • Language can serve as a marker of social class, impacting perceptions and interactions within and outside the social group.

  • Examining language variation across social classes provides insights into the relationships between language, power, and social dynamics.

  • Milroy and Gordon (20080 discuss two problematic issues inherent in the study of social claass.First, as a concept it combines economic aspects with status ones; this creates particular difficulty when we try to make comparison across communities, as a university professor may have a very different type of status ( as well as economic standing) in one comminity wehen compared to another. Another issue has to do with mobility between social classes; again we see variation in this across societies, with mobility being greater in, for example, the United States than in the United Kingdom.

  • the concept of lifestyle has been introduced into classifying people in sociolinguisics, so obviously patterns of consumption of gooas and appearance are important for a number of people in arriving at some kind of social classification.