APUSH Chapter 26 - The Global Crisis 1921-1941 (DETAILED)
The Diplomacy of the New Era
Isolationism: the word used to describe the American foreign policy that caused its isolation
Rejected the Wilsonian vision and stated that as a nation, the U.S. had turned its back on the rest of the world, and repudiated its international responsibilities
Debunked the myth by stating that the United States still played a more active role in world affairs, in fact being more active than previous accounts
Summary: American foreign policy, known as isolationism, led to the U.S. turning away from international responsibilities, rejecting Wilson's vision. However, this idea was debunked as the U.S. remained active in world affairs, even more so than previously recorded
Replacing the League
Under the Harding administration, the U.S. being a part of the League of Nations didn’t seem as possible
1921, we declared an end to the war with Germany
Washington Conference of 1921: An attempt to prevent what was threatening to become a costly and destabilizing naval armaments race between the United States, Britain, and Japan. This began the New Era effort to protect the peace (the economic interests of the United States)
Five-Power Pact of February 1922: Established both limits for total naval tonnage and a ratio of armaments among the signatories
America - 5 tons of warships
Britain - 5 tons of warships
Japan - 3 tons of warships
France - 1.75 tons of warships
Italy - 1.75 tons of warships
Nine-Power Pact: Pledging a continuation of the Open Door policy in China
Four-Power Pact: An agreement between the United States, Great Britain, France, and Japan to respect each other's Pacific territories and consult in the event of a crisis.
Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928: A multilateral treaty that condemned war as a means of resolving international disputes, promoting peaceful negotiations instead.
Summary: Under the Harding administration, U.S. participation in the League of Nations seemed unlikely. In 1921, the U.S. declared an end to the war with Germany. The Washington Conference aimed to prevent a naval arms race among the U.S., Britain, and Japan, and began the New Era focus on peace. The Five-Power Pact of February 1922 set limits on naval tonnage (U.S. and Britain at 5 tons; Japan at 3; France and Italy at 1.75). The Nine-Power Pact supported the Open Door policy in China, while the Four-Power Pact involved consultations among the U.S., Britain, France, and Japan regarding Pacific crises. The Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928 condemned war as a means to resolve disputes, promoting peaceful negotiations instead
Debts and Diplomacy
The first responsibility of diplomacy, Hughes, Kellogg, and others agreed, was to ensure that nations sought peaceful resolutions to conflicts, thereby preventing the escalation of tensions that could lead to war.
Europe was the baseline of America’s economic health
Most nations that depended on the United States in the war were in severe debt, ~$11B, and the Republican administrations were unwilling to reduce or forgive the debts
In 1924, Charles G. Dawes found an agreement that would provide enormous loans to the Germans, which would allow them to reach the payments that they owed, and in return, Britain and France would reduce the amount
Circular Loans: America would lend Germany money, and Germany would use that money to pay France and England, which they would use to pay America’s war debts
American car manufacturers were capturing a large share of the overseas market by making European factories
Americans were making ~$10B through the Continent, and they took advantage of the European devastation
America was becoming too dependent on the unstable European economy, and many groups within the government were worried about that
The European countries weren’t able to export their goods to the United States, which made it difficult for them to repay their loans, but most people didn’t care
During the 1920s, America built a similar bond with Latin countries that they have built with European countries
The Latin countries couldn’t sustain their economies without access to American markets, leading to increased financial pressure and political instability in the region, similar to the European countries
By the end of the 1920s, resentment of “Yankee imperialism” was growing rapidly
Yankee imperialism: the term used to describe the expansionist policies and economic influence of the United States in Latin America, often viewed as a form of neocolonialism that undermined local sovereignty.
Summary: Diplomacy's main role was to ensure peaceful conflict resolutions, preventing war escalation. As Europe was vital to America's economic health, countries heavily in debt to the U.S. (~$11B) faced a lack of debt relief from Republican administrations. Charles Dawes arranged substantial loans for Germany, enabling repayment to Britain and France while using U.S. funds. American car manufacturers profited from the destruction in Europe, amassing ~$10B. However, this dependence on a fragile European economy raised concerns. Similar financial ties formed with Latin American countries, leading to instability there as well, fostering resentment towards 'Yankee imperialism' where U.S. policies undermined local sovereignty
Hoover and the World Crisis
In 1929, the world started to go through a world financial crisis, and by 1931, it increased dramatically and also started a dangerous nationalist view, which weakened international agreements that were previously stated
Hoover wanted to fix the problems from the previous decade, which would eventually lead to another war
In Latin America, it started repairing the damages that were created by American policies by using a ten-week goodwill tour
ten-week goodwill tour: a diplomatic effort aimed at improving relations between the United States and Latin American countries, emphasizing cooperation and mutual respect.
Attempted to stop intervening in the internal affairs of neighboring nations and removed troops from Haiti
Economic distress led to the collapse of one Latin country after another, so Hoover would create a new policy
Policy in question: The United States would grant diplomatic recognition to any sitting government in the region without questioning the means it had used to obtain power
In October of 1931, Hoover repudiated the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine by refusing to permit U.S. intervention when several Latin American countries defaulted on debt obligations
Roosevelt Corollary: A policy asserting that the United States had the right to intervene in Latin America to maintain stability and order, which was now effectively overturned by Hoover's approach.
Monroe Doctrine: A 19th-century U.S. foreign policy statement claiming that the Americas should be free from European colonialism, asserting that any intervention by external powers in the politics of the Americas would be seen as an act of aggression requiring U.S. intervention.
The administration in Europe enjoyed only a few successes in its efforts to promote economic stability
When Hoover’s proposed moratorium on debts in 1931 failed to attract broad support or produce financial stability, many economists and political leaders appealed to the president to cancel all war debts in the United States
Hoover refused, and in return, European countries severely damaged an already tense international climate
New governments were coming to power in Europe because of the ineffectiveness of diplomacy
Benito Mussolini’s Fascist Party had been in control of Italy since the early 1920s; by the 1930s, the regime was growing increasingly nationalistic and militaristic, and Fascist leaders were loudly threatening an active campaign of imperial expansion
In Germany, the National Socialists (Nazi) were under the control of Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler lost the election for chancellor in 1932, but a year later, he took power
Adolf Hitler believed that the Germans were the “Master race", and he planned on removing any and all non-German people to create more living space for the Germans, which would soon become a threat to not only Europe, but also the world’s peace
In Asia, Japan was leaving its economic depression and was concerned about the increasing strength of the Soviet Union and the nationalist China, under the rule of Premier Chiang Kai-shek
This led Japan to adopt a more aggressive foreign policy, which included military expansion into Manchuria in 1931 and an intensified focus on securing resources to support its industrial economy.
The American government has few things to do, and they mainly hope that Japan will seize Tokyo back again and stop the invasion
Japan soon invaded Shanghai, increasing its aggression against China, and killing thousands of civilians
The international system that the United States has forced other countries to abide by, while refusing to commit to the interests of other countries, had collapsed by early 1933
America had two choices for this
They could adopt a firmer and more meaningful international association with other nations
Or, they could resort to their previous nationalism and rely on their own devices for not only their problems, but the world’s as well
In the end, they experimented with a mix of both approaches
Summary: In 1929, a global financial crisis began, escalating by 1931 with a rise in nationalism that weakened international agreements. Hoover sought to address the repercussions of American policies, which included a goodwill tour in Latin America and a policy granting diplomatic recognition to any sitting government without questioning its methods. In October 1931, he rejected the Roosevelt Corollary, avoiding U.S. intervention in Latin America during debt defaults. However, his administration faced few successes in promoting European economic stability. When Hoover’s debt moratorium proposal failed, international tensions worsened. New governments emerged in Europe due to ineffective diplomacy, with Mussolini's Fascist regime in Italy and Hitler's rise in Germany posing growing threats to regional peace. In Asia, Japan adopted a more aggressive foreign policy amid concerns about the Soviet Union and China, leading to invasions that resulted in significant civilian casualties. By early 1933, the international system established by the U.S. had collapsed, presenting a choice between stronger international cooperation or reverting to isolationism, which led to a mix of both approaches
Isolationism and Internationalism
When Franklin Roosevelt reentered office in 1933, he had to deal with one of the worst economic crises in the nation’s history and the decaying international structure
In the 1930s, the United States wasn’t willing to commit more than faint gestures towards restoring stability to the world
Franklin Roosevelt wouldn’t allow the nation to stay isolated for very long
Summary: In 1933, Franklin Roosevelt confronted a major economic crisis and a deteriorating international structure. During the 1930s, the U.S. showed limited commitment to global stability, but Roosevelt was determined to avoid prolonged isolation
Depression Diplomacy
Hoover had argued that if they solved the question of war debts alongside reinforcing the gold standard, then America’s economy could hope to recover
He agreed to have the United States attend the World Economic Conference, which would be held in London in June 1933
Roosevelt has allowed the gold value of the dollar to fall, so that American goods had the opportunity to compete in the world markets
Roosevelt soon released the famous “bombshell” message
What was the bombshell message about? - The bombshell message stated that the United States would no longer adhere to the gold standard, which effectively meant it could not commit to a fixed exchange rate, thus signaling a shift in monetary policy and making it clear that the U.S. would prioritize domestic economic recovery over international monetary agreements.
The World Economic Conference quickly dissolved without reaching an agreement, and not until 1936 were new negotiations made to stabilize Western currencies
Roosevelt abandoned all of the commitments that the Hoover administration had established, so that they could focus on war debts through international agreement
In April 1934, a bill was signed to forbid American banks from making loans to any nation in default on its debts
The result was to stop the old, circular system, and within months, all war-debt payments (except for Finland) ended for good
Although the newly established administration didn’t have nearly as much interest in international currency stabilization or settlement of war debts, it did have a lot of interest in improving America’s position in world trade
Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act (1934) - authorizing the administration to negotiate treaties lowering tariffs by as much as 50 percent in return for reciprocal reductions by other nations
In 1939, Cordell Hull, the Secretary of State, negotiated new treaties with 21 countries
The result was an increase in American exports of nearly 40 percent
Most of the agreements only allowed products that were not competitive with the American industry and agriculture, which allowed imports into the United States to continue, despite how they lagged
This made it so that other nations that were not obtaining the American currency needed to buy American products or pay off debts to American banks
Summary: Hoover believed resolving war debts and maintaining the gold standard were essential for economic recovery, leading to the U.S. attending the World Economic Conference in June 1933. Roosevelt allowed the dollar's value to fall to boost American competitiveness and issued the "bombshell" message, which ended adherence to the gold standard, prioritizing domestic recovery over international agreements. The World Economic Conference failed to produce results, and Roosevelt abandoned Hoover's commitments to focus on war debts. In April 1934, legislation prevented loans to nations in default, halting most war-debt payments. The new administration focused more on trade than currency stabilization, enacting the Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act, which lowered tariffs. By 1939, Secretary of State Cordell Hull's treaties with 21 countries increased American exports by 40%, primarily benefiting non-competitive goods and perpetuating the financial strain on nations needing U.S. currency for transactions
America and the Soviet Union
The hopes of expanding its foreign trade were intended to improve relations with the Soviet Union
Since the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, America and Russia have viewed each other with mistrust and hostility, and on top of that, America did not officially recognize the Soviet Union until 1933
When the Soviet Union became viewed as a possible source of trade, both Russia and America became up for a possible new relationship
Russia saw the United States as someone powerful enough to help against Japan, which was becoming a great threat to Russia
An agreement between Roosevelt and Maxim Litvinov stated, “the Soviets would cease their propaganda efforts in the United States and protect American citizens in Russia; in return, the United States would recognize the Soviet regime.”
Despite the promising beginning, the relationship quickly soured
American trade failed to establish much of a foothold in Russia
The Soviets received no reassurance from the United States that it was interested in stopping Japanese expansion in Asia
At the end of 1934, with disappointed hopes on both sides, the Soviet Union and the United States were seeing each other with mistrust in their views
Summary: The U.S. aimed to expand foreign trade to improve relations with the Soviet Union, which had been marked by mistrust since the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917. Official recognition of the Soviet Union came in 1933, leading to a potential new relationship, as Russia sought U.S. assistance against Japan. An agreement between Roosevelt and Maxim Litvinov called for the Soviets to cease propaganda and protect American citizens in exchange for U.S. recognition. However, trade efforts faltered, and the lack of U.S. commitment to counter Japan soured relations, leading to mutual distrust by the end of 1934
The Good Neighbor Policy
A more successful attempt of American efforts to enhance both the diplomatic and the economic relations between the United States and Latin America
In the 1930s, the United States increased both the imports and the experts from the other nations within the Western Hemisphere by over 100 percent
The Hoover administration had abandoned the previous practice of using military force to compel Latin American governments to repay debts, respect foreign investments, or otherwise behave “responsibly.”
Roosevelt’s administration went further than this
Inter-American Conference: A formal convention declaring “No state has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another.”
Roosevelt respected the pledge throughout all his years in office
The Good Neighbor Policy did not mean that the United States had abandoned its influence in Latin America
Now, America uses economic influence, rather than military force
This eased many tensions for the United States and its neighboring countries, but it did nothing to stem the growing U.S. domination of the Latin American economies
Summary: The Good Neighbor Policy aimed to enhance diplomatic and economic relations between the U.S. and Latin America, resulting in over 100% growth in imports and exports in the 1930s. The Hoover administration stopped using military force against Latin American governments regarding debts and responsibilities. Roosevelt furthered this approach by respecting the pledge from the Inter-American Conference, which stated no state should intervene in another's affairs. The U.S. shifted to using economic influence instead of military force, easing tensions while still dominating Latin American economies
The Rise of Isolationism
With the birth of the Roosevelt administration, Hoover’s hopes for international economic agreements and world peace through treaties and disarmament died quickly
The arms control conference in Geneva had been meeting on numerous occasions, all of which had zero results
In May 1933, Roosevelt attempted to spur it to action by submitting a new American proposal for arms reductions
These negotiations stalled and eventually broke down, leading to major political leaders like Hitler, Mussolini, and Japan to withdraw from the London Naval Conference, which had been trying to create an agreement to add limitations on naval armaments that were negotiated at the Washington Conference of 1921
There was a choice between a more-active effort to stabilize the world and more energetic attempts to isolate the nation from it
Americans, without a second thought, picked the latter
Old Wilsonian internationalists had become disillusioned with the League of Nations and its inability to stop Japanese aggression in Asia
Americans at the time were listening to the argument that powerful business interests were the causes for the United States being involved with World War I
An investigation was put into action because of this, and it was found that many corporate leaders had indeed influenced foreign policy to benefit their economic interests, leading to widespread skepticism about America's role in international affairs.
Throughout all of this, Roosevelt still tried to get America an important role in World Peace
In 1935, he asked the Senate to ratify a treaty to make the United States a member of the World Court
World Court: A treaty that would have expanded America’s symbolic commitment to internationalism without increasing its actual responsibilities in any important way
However, the isolationist opposition led to the defeat of the treaty
After this defeat, Roosevelt didn’t attempt to challenge the isolationist tide
In 1935, it became clear that Italy’s leader, Mussolini, was planning to invade Ethiopia to expand the amount of colonial areas they held in Africa
Because of this, America feared that a European general war would come from this, so the United States began to design legal safeguards to prevent the United States from being dragged into the conflict
This created the Neutrality Act of 1935
Following the Neutrality Act of 1935 came the Neutrality Acts of 1936 and 1937, which were designed to prevent a recurrence of the events that many Americans now believed had pressured the United States into World War I
These acts imposed an arms embargo against nations at war and prohibited American citizens from traveling on belligerent ships, reflecting a strong isolationist sentiment among the American public
Isolationists believed that the “protection of neutral rights” could not again become an excuse for American intervention in war
Neutrality Act of 1936 renewed these provisions
Neutrality Act of 1937 with world conditions growing even more precarious, Congress passed a new Neutrality Act that established the so-called cash-and-carry policy
Cash-and-carry policy: belligerents could purchase only nonmilitary foods from the United States and had to pay cash and carry the goods away on their own vessels
In October of 1935, Mussolini finally launched his long-anticipated attack on Ethiopia
The League of Nations protested after finding out about this attack, but Italy decided to just leave the League without looking back
Italy soon allied with Nazi Germany, in an alliance called the “Axis.”
Most Americans responded by having a renewed determination to isolate themselves from European instability
Isolationist sentiment showed its strength once again in 1936-1937 in response to the civil war in Spain
The Falangists, a group that was considered very similar to the Italian fascists, revolted in July of 1936 against the existing republican government
Hitler and Mussolini supported General Francisco Franco, who was the Falangist leader in 1937, from both his speeches and his weapons plus supplies
Some Americans went to Spain and joined in on the protests
The United States government joined Britain and France in an agreement to offer no assistance to either side, although all three governments were sympathetic to the republicans
Japan finally started to leave China alone after the invasion of Manchuria in 1931
In the summer of 1937, Tokyo launched a bigger attack, which involved China’s five northern provinces
“Quarantine” speech: Given by Roosevelt, which warned forcefully of the dangers that Japanese aggression posed to world peace
He believed that aggressors should be “quarantined” by the international community to prevent the contagion of war from spreading
The views of this speech were seen as extremely hostile, so Roosevelt drew back
On December 12, 1937, Japan bombed and sank the United States ship “Panay” as it sailed in the Yangtze River in China, and was undoubtedly on purpose
Isolationists begged for the American government to forgive Japan so that they didn’t become involved in any war
Summary: Roosevelt's administration quickly abandoned Hoover's hopes for international economic agreements, as the Geneva arms control conference repeatedly failed. In May 1933, his proposal for arms reductions stalled, and major powers like Hitler, Mussolini, and Japan left the London Naval Conference. The choice between stabilizing global relations or isolating the U.S. led to a strong isolationist sentiment. Disillusionment grew over the League of Nations and corporate influence in World War I. Roosevelt aimed for a greater role in world peace, proposing U.S. membership in the World Court in 1935, but faced isolationist opposition. Mussolini's invasion of Ethiopia sparked fears of a European war, resulting in the Neutrality Act of 1935 and subsequent acts that further entrenched isolationism, including a cash-and-carry policy. As Mussolini allied with Nazi Germany and pursued aggression, Americans leaned towards isolationism during the Spanish Civil War. Roosevelt's "quarantine" speech in 1937 highlighted Japanese aggression, but Japan's attack on the U.S. ship "Panay" intensified calls for avoiding war
The Failure of Munich
Hitler violated the Versailles Treaty by rearming an area that France had controlled since World War I
Hitler soon took control of Austria, his homeland, fulfilling his dream of having all German-speaking countries united
Hitler now occupied the territory surrounding three sides of western Czechoslovakia, a land Hitler had dreamed of annexing
At this time, most European countries didn’t want to stop Hitler from what he was doing in fear of another World War breaking out again
Fear of the “War of the Worlds” was just as big in the United States as it was in Europe
On September 29, Hitler met with French and British leaders in a Munich Conference to resolve the crisis
Agreed to allow Hitler to take control of Czechoslovakia IF it was the last time he would expand his territory
In England, their leader ensured “peace in our time” for how the conference went
Soon after the Munich Conference, Hitler violated the agreement (failure of “appeasement”) by occupying the remaining areas of Czechoslovakia
Soon after, Hitler issued threats against Poland
Britain and France promised the Polish government that they would aid Poland in the case of invasion
Germany staged a fake attack on the Poland-Germany border to make it look like Germany was attacked, and on September 1, 1939, Germany launched a full-scale invasion of Poland
Britain and France, true to their word, joined in and declared war on Germany 2 days later, starting World War II in Europe
Summary: Hitler violated the Versailles Treaty by remilitarizing areas lost post-World War I and annexing Austria. He occupied parts of Czechoslovakia, prompting fears in Europe and the U.S. of another war. During the Munich Conference on September 29, 1938, leaders agreed to let Hitler take Czechoslovakia, thinking it would be his last territorial claim. Shortly after, Hitler disregarded the agreement, fully occupying Czechoslovakia and threatening Poland. Following a staged attack on September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland, leading Britain and France to declare war on Germany two days later, marking the beginning of World War II in Europe.
From Neutrality to Intervention
The president stated, “This nation will remain a neutral nation.”
Understanding that people will have their own opinions says, “but I cannot ask that every American remain neutral in thought as well.”
Even though President Woodrow Wilson had pleaded for America to be neutral in both action and thought for World War I, it was clear that he wasn’t neutral in both action and thought for World War II
Summary: The president declared, "This nation will remain neutral," acknowledging differing opinions and emphasizing that Americans could not remain neutral in thought. Despite Woodrow Wilson's call for American neutrality during World War I, he did not maintain this stance in World War II
Neutrality Tested
It was clear that most of America favored Britain, France, and their allies during this war
The real question was whether or not the United States was actually fit to assist them during these times
In September of 1939, Roosevelt asked Congress for a revision of the Neutrality Acts
The Neutrality Acts forbade the sale of American weapons to any nation engaged in war
The new Act maintained the prohibition on American ships entering war zones, but it did permit belligerents to purchase arms on the same cash-and-carry basis that the earlier Neutrality Acts had established for the sale of nonmilitary materials
After Germany started to leave Poland alone, there was still a “phony war” where Russia was attacking their neighbors, instead of allies vs. axis fighting
Russia annexed Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania before invading Finland
The only thing worried Americans could do was impose an ineffective “moral embargo” on the shipment of armaments to Russia
In 1940, the Soviet advance was complete
Germany soon launched an invasion of Denmark and Norway, soon going after the Netherlands and Belgium, and finally going after France
One European stronghold after another fell into German hands
Soon, Italy joined in on the war by invading France from the south, while Hitler invaded from the north
On June 22, France fell to the German onslaught
Roosevelt had started preparations to resist a possible Nazi invasion of the United States
While France was weakening, Roosevelt promised the United States would “extend to the opponents of force the material resources of this nation.”
A few weeks later, the new prime minister of Britain sent a long list to Roosevelt that had requests for ships, armaments, and other assistance, without which, he insisted
England could not long survive
Many Americans believed that England was long gone, and supplying aid would be a wasted effort
Before France’s defeat, American citizens did not worry about Germany attacking and invading the United States, but after France fell, the citizens started to worry
Feeling a bigger need for internal preparations for war, the United States soon passed the Burke-Wadsworth Act
Burke-Wadsworth Act: This act was the first peacetime draft in American history, requiring all men aged 21 to 35 to register for military service, which was pivotal in preparing the nation for potential involvement in World War II.
Even though the idea of America being isolated from the war was shrinking, the idea was far from dead
There were many debates between people who believed America should further support the war efforts and those who believed America should back down from the support they were giving
The Fight for Freedom Committee soon came into effect, and they advocated for an immediate declaration of war
Opposing this idea was a powerful new committee called the America First Committee, which was more popular in terms of having more powerful and prominent American leaders
Both of these parties had constant loud and bitter arguments in the fall and the summer; moreover, it was complicated by a presidential campaign
Summary: In 1939, America largely favored Britain and France but questioned its readiness to assist. Roosevelt sought to revise the Neutrality Acts, allowing belligerents to buy arms on a cash-and-carry basis. While Germany initially left Poland alone, the Soviet Union aggressively annexed neighboring countries. Hitler's invasions included Denmark, Norway, and France, leading to France's fall on June 22. Roosevelt prepared for a potential Nazi invasion and pledged support to allies amid rising concerns among Americans. The Burke-Wadsworth Act established the first peacetime draft, increasing internal war preparations. While isolationist sentiments persisted, factions formed, with the Fight for Freedom Committee advocating for war declarations against the opposition of the America First Committee, reflecting a divided public opinion.
The Third-Term Campaign
Politics in the 1940s revolved around Roosevelt’s intentions, which stirred a question on whether Roosevelt would break tradition and run for a third term
The Democratic Party renominated him, and even reluctantly swallowed his choice for vice president: Agriculture Secretary Henry A. Wallace, a man too liberal for the taste of many party leaders
Roosevelt’s balanced views on isolationists and intervention gave the Republican Party few obvious alternatives
After a popular movement, the party finally nominated the politically inexperienced businessman, Wendell Willkie
Wendell Willkie promised to stay out of the war but continue to help the allies out with their troubles
Roosevelt won the election with 449 electoral votes, while Wilkie only got 82 electoral votes
Summary: In the 1940s, politics were centered on whether Roosevelt would seek a third term. The Democratic Party re-nominated him despite concerns over his choice of liberal vice president Henry A. Wallace. Roosevelt's moderate stance left Republicans with limited options, ultimately nominating newcomer Wendell Willkie, who advocated for non-involvement in the war while supporting allies. Roosevelt won decisively with 449 electoral votes to Willkie's 82.
Neutrality Abandoned
After the election, Roosevelt began to make changes in the American role in the war
He wasn’t just aiding Britain; he was also moving America into actually being involved directly in the war
By December of 1940, Britain was bankrupt and couldn’t afford the cash-and-carry requirements that the Neutrality Act imposed
The president then created a method that would “eliminate the dollar sign".
This approach was known as the Lend-Lease Act, which allowed the U.S. to supply war materials to its allies without the immediate requirement for payment, thereby strengthening the Allied powers while maintaining a façade of neutrality
Isolationists argued, saying it was simply a device to tie the United States more closely to the Allies
Soon, America realized the dangers of cross-Atlantic shipping
Britain’s ships were being destroyed by the Nazi submarines faster than they could rebuild them
America came up with the plan to protect the ships, by protecting them once they reached the western part of the Atlantic, which was considered American waters
Eventually, the United States was patrolling as far east as Iceland
Germany was well aware of these hostile American actions, but didn’t do anything to stop what was happening
In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, breaking the Nazi-Soviet pact from before
The Soviet Union did not surrender, which led to Roosevelt alling an extend lend-lease privilege to the Soviet Union, the stepping stone for the Soviet-American alliance
By now, the United States was allied with 2 of Germany’s biggest enemies, Britain and the Soviet Union
By September, Nazi submarines were now targeting all American ships in the Atlantic, sinking one out of two that were there
Britain told America to shoot on sight if they saw any submarines that belonged to Nazi Germany after Congress passed a measure to allow arms on the ship as a way of defense
This started a naval war with Germany
Secret meetings (one public meeting) were happening between the United States and Great Britain to discuss what would happen if the United States joined in on the war
The Atlantic Charter: A pivotal policy statement issued in August 1941 that outlined the vision for a post-war world, which included the commitment to self-determination for nations, disarmament, and economic cooperation, marking a significant step in the alliance between the United States and Britain
By the fall of 1941, it seemed only a matter of time before the United States was actually a part of the war
Roosevelt believed that most Americans would support the acts of the United States being involved in the war once an enemy force attacked America
The attack that came didn’t happen in the Atlantic, but in the Pacific
Summary: After the election, Roosevelt began to shift America's role from merely aiding Britain to direct involvement in World War II. By December 1940, Britain faced bankruptcy and could not meet cash-and-carry requirements of the Neutrality Act, prompting the creation of the Lend-Lease Act, which allowed the U.S. to supply war materials to allies without immediate payment, despite isolationist concerns about deepening ties to the Allies. Realizing the dangers of cross-Atlantic shipping, America began protecting ships in its waters as Britain’s vessels were rapidly destroyed by Nazi submarines. In 1941, Germany broke the Nazi-Soviet pact and invaded the Soviet Union, which held firm against surrender, leading to Roosevelt extending lend-lease privileges to the Soviets and forming alliances with both Britain and the USSR. By September, Nazi submarines targeted American ships in the Atlantic, prompting Britain to advise shooting on sight, marking the start of a naval war with Germany. Secret meetings between the U.S. and Great Britain culminated in the Atlantic Charter, outlining a vision for a post-war order based on self-determination and economic cooperation. By fall 1941, it was evident the U.S. would soon be part of the war, with Roosevelt believing that American support would increase once enemy forces attacked, which ultimately occurred in the Pacific.
The Road to Pearl Harbor
Japan took advantage of the crisis that had kept the Soviet Union, Britain, and France busy
Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy
Tripartite Pact: An agreement that established a military alliance among Japan, Germany, and Italy, aimed at mutual defense and cooperation during World War II.
Roosevelt had already displayed his animosity toward Japanese policies by harshly denouncing their assault on China and by terminating a long-standing American commercial treaty with the Tokyo government
In July 1941, Japan seized the capital of Vietnam, a colony of France
When Tokyo failed to listen to Roosevelt’s stern warning relating to the next target being the Dutch East Indies, the United States froze all Japanese assets in the United States and established a complete trade embargo, which limited Japan’s ability to purchase essential supplies from the United States
Soon, American citizens had a strong anti-Japanese view, which lasted for decades
Tokyo soon only had two choices
Repair the relations with the United States to restore the flow of supplies
Find said supplies elsewhere, most likely by seizing from the British and Dutch
Japan’s original prime minister, Prince Konoye, was thrown out of office, and the new prime minister, General Hideki Tojo, escalated military aggression, and there seemed to be no alternative to war
Tokyo continued the attempts to negotiate with the United States, so they came up with a modus, and sent it to Washington to the State Department to discuss it
Tokyo had already decided that it would not yield on the question of China, and Washington had made clear that it would accept nothing less than a reversal of that policy
Secretary of State Cordell Hull rejected the Japanese overtures out of hand, and on November 27, he told Secretary of War Henry Stimson about a Japanese code in their messages, which made clear that war was for sure going to happen
After November 29, an attack would be only a matter of days
Washington did not know where the attack was going to take place
American intelligence took note of a Japanese ship that was heading east toward Hawaii on November 25, and warned the American United States naval forces stationed at Pearl Harbor
At 7:55 a.m. on Sunday, December 7, 1941, a wave of Japanese bombers attacked the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, and a second wave came an hour later
Within 2 hours, the United States lost 8 battleships, 3 cruisers, 4 other vessels, 188 airplanes, and several vital shore installations
More than 2000 soldiers and sailors died, and another 1,000 were injured
Japan only suffered a few losses from the bombings
The Senate unanimously, and the House 388 to 1 (the lone dissenter being Jeannette Rankin of Montana, who had voted against war in 1917 as well), approved a declaration of war against Japan
3 days later, Germany and Italy declared war against the United States, and on the same day, December 11, Congress declared war on Germany and Italy as well
For the second time in 25 years, the United States was engaged in a world war
Summary: Japan exploited the distraction of the Soviet Union, Britain, and France, signing the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy for a military alliance. Roosevelt condemned Japanese aggression in China and ended a commercial treaty. In July 1941, Japan seized Vietnam, ignoring U.S. warnings about the Dutch East Indies, resulting in a trade embargo. This created strong anti-Japanese sentiments among Americans. Japan faced a choice: mend relations with the U.S. or seek supplies elsewhere, likely through military action. With rising tensions, the new Prime Minister General Hideki Tojo took a more aggressive stance. Diplomatic attempts failed as U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull rejected Japan’s overtures, leading to the clear indication of impending war. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, sinking ships and killing over 2,000 U.S. personnel. Congress swiftly declared war on Japan, leading to Germany and Italy also declaring war on the U.S., marking America's entry into World War II again.
Overall Summary
American foreign policy underwent significant changes from isolationism to intervention in the lead-up to World War II. Initially, the U.S. adopted an isolationist stance that rejected international obligations and the vision put forth by President Wilson. However, this period was marked by contradictions, as America remained actively involved in global affairs. Under the Harding administration, the potential for joining the League of Nations diminished, and initiatives like the Washington Conference aimed to prevent a naval arms race among the U.S., Britain, and Japan, reflecting a focus on safeguarding American economic interests.
The Five-Power Pact of 1922 established limits on naval armaments among major powers and, together with the Nine-Power and Four-Power Pacts, sought to maintain stability in regions of strategic interest, including China. Nonetheless, the U.S. lent significant economic support to nations grappling with war debts, promoting a circular lending system that ultimately left America too reliant on a fragile European economy.
As the Great Depression deepened, President Hoover’s administration focused on diplomatic relations, yet failed to effectively resolve tensions, leading to the rise of aggressive powers in Europe and Asia, such as Mussolini's Italy and Hitler’s Germany. Roosevelt, who took office in 1933 during a domestic and international crisis, faced challenges in balancing isolationist sentiment with the need for global engagement, particularly as conflicts erupted in Europe and Asia.
Through measures like the Good Neighbor Policy, Roosevelt aimed to improve relations with Latin America, moving away from military interventions towards economic influence. However, the rise of isolationism in the U.S. reflected widespread public skepticism of international involvement, particularly in light of events like the Spanish Civil War and Japan's aggression against China.
Following diplomatic failures in negotiations with Japan, the escalation of military actions culminated in the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which propelled the U.S. into World War II. The complexities of foreign policy decisions during this period highlight the tension between isolationism and intervention, ultimately leading to America’s engagement in global conflict once again after decades of hesitation and reluctant involvement.