The Making of Modern Iraq
The Making of Modern Iraq: A Historical Analysis (1916-2003)
British Intervention and the Genesis of Modern Iraq
Early Military Engagement (1916-1917):
In 1916, British soldiers advanced up the Tigris River but faced defeat and humiliation at the hands of the Turks.
By 1917, the British returned, advancing to Baghdad and beyond, ultimately collaborating with General Edmund Allenby's forces (thrusting through Palestine, aided by an Arab uprising) to topple the Ottoman Empire.
The British occupation lasted for approximately years, with a brief interruption in 1941 due to a pro-Nazi seizure of power in Baghdad.
This period saw notable social and economic progress in Iraq, but it was also marked by convoluted, painful, and often violent political events that are crucial for understanding Iraq's future.
The Invention of Modern Iraq:
Modern Iraq was primarily an invention of British military and administrative expediency in the aftermath of World War I.
Initially, Britain lacked a clear objective regarding the Ottoman Empire beyond its defeat.
During the war's critical stages, Britain's Arab bureau in Cairo issued declarations promising independence under British protection to Palestine, Syria, and Mesopotamia (then Iraq) in exchange for support against the Ottomans.
British officials in India, traditionally responsible for foreign policy east of Suez, were alarmed by this involvement in Islamic affairs.
Post-World War I Realities:
Ottoman Collapse & Allied Occupation: The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, leading to British military occupation outside Turkey.
Arab Allies & Pan-Arabism: Arab allies, who fought alongside T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia), were encouraged by him to envision an independent pan-Arab state stretching from the Persian frontier to the Suez Canal.
French Interests: France sought a share of the Ottoman territories, specifically Lebanon and Syria.
Self-Determination & Imperialism: President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points and the popular principle of self-determination made establishing new colonial outposts highly problematic.
Strategic Importance of Oil: The war underscored the critical strategic value of oil supplies required for the internal-combustion engine.
The Hashemite-Saudi Rivalry:
The British also had to navigate an Arab civil war between the Hashemite dynasty (original custodians of Mecca and Medina's holy shrines) and the House of ibn Saud (adherents of the puritanical Wahhabi sect).
The House of ibn Saud violently took control of Arabia, establishing Saudi Arabia and deliberately destroying many shrines and graves in Mecca deemed idolatrous.
London compensated the Hashemites: Prince Abdullah was given what became the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, and his brother, Prince Faisal (who aided in wresting Syria from the Turks), was initially given Syria.
The British Mandate and King Faisal's Reign (1920-1932)
The Iraqi Revolt of 1920:
Iraqi tribes revolted against the British due to unfulfilled wartime pledges of independence.
T.E. Lawrence, then retired, publicly condemned British policy in a letter to The Times on August , stating: