Macromolecules 2

GENERAL INFORMATION

Functional Groups

Carbohydrates

Hydroxyl: OH, found in alcohol (Like glycerol)

Carboxyl: COOH, found in amino acids

Carbonyl: Found in Aldehydes and Ketones. (Ketone has double bonded O in the middle, Aldehydes has it towards the end)

Amino: NH2, Found in amino acids

Phosphate: Found in P04, found in phospholipids and ATP

  • Caron can make 4 types of covalent bonds →4 electrons on the outer shell

  • Carbon can make single, double, and triple bonds →More bonds = Stronger hold

  • Organic compounds have carbon →Organic compounds: Carbohydrates, fats and protein

Dehydration Synthesis: When a hydrogen molecule is taken away to get two or more molecules together (ex: formation of monosaccharides) SUBTRACT H2O

Hydrolysis: Opposite of above, a hydrogen molecule is added, breaking the molecules apart. ADD H2O

CARBOHYDRATES

Monosaccharide: 1 carbohydrate monomer. SIMPLE SUGAR

Disaccharide: 2 carbohydrate monomers. SIMPLE SUGAR

Polysaccharide: Several monomers put together. COMPLEX SUGAR

Isomer: Isomers have the same molecular formula, and the structural arrangement of atoms is different 

ALPHA VS BETA GLUCOSE

Alpha: OH is facing down C-1

Beta: OH is up on C-1

GALACTOSE VS GLUCOSE

Galactose: OH is up on the C-4, Similar to BETA

Glucose: OH is down on the C-1, Similar to ALPHA

Starch: Energy storage for plants

Glycogen: Energy storage in animal muscle and liver

Cellulose: Plant cell wall

Chitin: Fungi cell wall

Peptidoglycan: Bacteria cell wall

Formulas for Sugars

Glucose + Glucose = Maltose Glucose pentagon (C6, H12, O6) - in blood

Glucose + Fucrose = Sucrose Fructose hexagon (C6, H12, O6) - in fruits 

Glucose + Galactose = Lactose Galactose hexagon (C6, H12, O6) - in milk

Ribose (C5, H10, O5)

Deoxybose (C5, H10, O4)

LIPIDS

Purpose of Fats: Energy Storage, cushion organs and insulate body

  • Nonpolar: Electrons are shared equally

  • Overall NONPOLAR (because they have a greater number of carbon-hydrogen bonds than carbohydrates)

  • Triglycerides = Glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids (fatty acids are nonpolar)

    Saturated VS Unsaturated:

  • Unsaturated are healthier because they have a bend in them, they DO have double bonds. Not solid because since they are curved, they are not packed as tight. Lower LDL, raise HDL

  • Saturated and unhealthier because they DO NOT have double bonds. Solid at room temperature. Raise LDL

  • Increase space between carbons, decrease density (less=healthier)

    Cis and Fatty Acids

  • A Cis fat has hydrogen atoms located on the same side. Trans-fat acids, it has 2 hydrogen atoms on opposite sides. Bent shape

  • Trans fats are unhealthier, they raise bad cholesterol (LDL) which can cause heart attacks. In contrast, cis fats raise good cholesterol (HDL). Striaght shape

    Phospholipids: 1 Glycerol + 2 Fatty Acids + Phosphate

  • Head →Phosphate, Glycerol, Carbonyl, Hydrophilic

  • Tails →Hydrophobic/Nonpolar, fatty acid chains. Hydrophobic because nonpolar, they balance out so they cant make bonds with water

  • Arranged in a bilayer in the cell membrane

    Stereoids

  • 3 hexagons + 1 pentagon

  • Ex: Cholesterol: important in regulating cell membrane fluidity and is the basic steroid from which steroid hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone are made

    Waxes

  • Long chain alcohol (an alcohol with many carbons) + a fatty acid

  • Coat the surface of leaves to prevent water loss

    Trygleride Structure

    Ester Linkage: Covalent Bonds found in lipids (The double-bonded O and the C)

    Glycerol: The orange part of the tryglericde, an alcohol

PROTEINS

  • Greatest variety in function → Depends on R-group

    Function of proteins

  • Messenger Proteins

  • Enzyme Proteins

  • Structural Proteins

  • Defensive Proteins

  • Transportive Proteins

    Structure of Amino Acid: Carboxyl, Amino, R group, central Carbon, and Hydrogen make up each amino acid

    Amino acids are categorized as nonpolar, polar, acidic, or basic based on R groups

Levels of proteins

Peptide Bond (carboxyl of one amino acid attaches to the amino group of another amino acid)

Dipeptide (2 amino acids joined together by a peptide bond)

A polypeptide (linear arrangement of many amino acids)

Levels of organization

primary - Peptide bonds

secondary - Hydrogen bonds

tertiary (determines the overall shape and unique function of the final protein) - R group bonds

quaternary (determines the overall shape and unique function of the final protein for proteins

made up of more than one chain) - R group bonds

ENZYME’S

Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change

Enzyme: Substrates are attracted to their active site and are broken down to speed up their activation rate

High Energy Intermediate: a short-lived, high-energy, highly reactive molecule

Induced Fit: The enzyme changes its shape to fit the substrate

Lock and key: Opposite of the above

enzymes usually end in a ase

Can be reused

Special cases

Pepsin: More acidic, In stomach acids (1.5-2.5)

Trypsin: More basic. Small intestine, ph 7.5-8.5

Denaturation: When the conditions are not met and the 3rd and 4th level groups begin to unfold and might result in permanent damage

Factors that affect enymes

  1. Temperature: Ideal temp 32 C. If too high or low denaturation can occur

  2. Ph: Ideal Ph, neutral (7). If to high → denaturation. Special cases are pepsin and trypsin

  3. Enzyme concentration: Too many substrates, not enough enzymes (Limiting Factor)

  4. Substrate concentration: Too many enzymes, not enough substrates (Limiting Factor)

  5. Competitive Inhibitor: When a molecule blocks the active site of an enzyme

    High energy intermediate/ transition state on a graph

MACROMOLECULE LABS

Iodine- tests for starch; negative: brown; positive: dark purple

Biuret- Tests for proteins, Negative: royal blue, Positive: violet/purple

Benedict: Needs to be heated. Tests for reducing sugars (all monosaccharides but only some disaccharides; sucrose is negative) Negative: aqua blue. Positive green, orange, or red, more red more sugar

Sudan IV- Tests for Fats. Negative- no red fat globules. Positive- red boundary around fat globules