English Term 1 Notes

The Straight Path: Linear Narrative Structure
Most stories follow a very simple path. They start at the beginning, move to the middle, and finish at the end. This is called a linear narrative structure.A story is a way to share events, whether they are real or make-believe. From old bedtime stories to modern movies, every story has basic parts.

The Key Parts of a Story
To fully understand any story, you need to know its four main building blocks:
Plot
The plot is the series of events in a story. It is simply "what happens" from the beginning, to the middle, and to the end.

Character
Characters are the people, animals, or magical creatures inside the story.

Setting
The setting tells us where and when the story happens. It can be a real place (like a busy street in Manila) or a magical place (like a kingdom in the clouds).

Theme
The theme is the main lesson or the hidden message of the story.

What are Sequence Markers?
Sequence markers (also called time words or transition words) are words or short phrases that connect sentences and paragraphs.

Common Sequence Markers
Here are the most common sequence markers, grouped by where you usually put them in a story:
To start the story (The Beginning): First, To begin, Initially, Once upon a time, One day.
To keep the story moving (The Middle): Next, Then, Second, After that, Soon, Meanwhile, Suddenly.
To finish the story (The Ending): Finally, In the end, Lastly, To conclude, Eventually.

Examples in Action
Let us look at how sequence markers work in a simple, everyday Philippine setting.
Without Sequence Markers (Confusing):
I woke up. I ate pandesal. I rode a jeepney to school. I took a bath. I arrived in my classroom.
Wait, did you take a bath after riding the jeepney? The story is a mess!

With Sequence Markers (Clear and Logical):
First, I woke up early at 6:00 AM. Next, I took a bath and put on my school uniform. Then, I ate hot pandesal for breakfast. After that, I rode a jeepney with my classmates. Finally, I arrived in my classroom just before the bell rang.

In literature, "naming the problem" means identifying the conflict in a story. A conflict is the main struggle, challenge, or problem that the main character (the protagonist) has to face and overcome.

The Four Main Types of Conflict
Man vs. Man (External): This is a struggle between two or more characters. It can be a physical fight, a misunderstanding, or a competition.

Man vs. Self (Internal): This problem happens inside the character's own mind. The character might be struggling with a difficult decision, fear, guilt, or sadness.

Man vs. Nature (External): This happens when a character faces a powerful, uncontrollable force of nature, like severe weather, wild animals, or sickness.

Man vs. Society (External): This is when a character goes against the rules, beliefs, or unfair laws of their community or government.

Conflict’s Role in the Plot
The plot is the series of events that make up a story.

Starting the Action: The story truly begins when the main problem is introduced. The character now has a goal they need to reach.
Building the Excitement (Rising Action): As the character tries to solve the problem, things usually get harder. This builds suspense and keeps the reader turning the pages.
Reaching the Climax: The most exciting and tense part of the story happens when the character finally faces the main problem head-on.
Ending the Story (Resolution): Once the problem is finally solved (or sometimes, if they fail to solve it), the story calms down and comes to an end.

Conflict’s Role in Characterization
Characterization is how an author shows the personality and traits of a character.
Revealing Personality: Problems act like a mirror. If a character runs away when a friend needs help, we learn they might be cowardly or selfish. If they stay to protect their friend despite being afraid, we learn they are brave and loyal.
Creating Growth: Characters usually change because of the problems they face. A selfish character might learn to be generous after surviving a disaster (Man vs. Nature). A shy character might become confident after finally winning a debate against a bully (Man vs. Man).

The CER Method
The CER method is like building a house. The Claim is the roof, the Evidence represents the walls holding it up, and the Reasoning is the strong foundation that keeps everything together.
Claim: This is your main point or your answer to a question. It is a statement that you believe is true. A good claim is short and direct.
Example: Playing basketball is a great way to stay healthy.
Evidence: This is your proof. Evidence includes facts, examples, data, or observations that support your claim. Without evidence, a claim is just a guess.
Example: According to doctors, playing basketball burns calories, builds muscles, and keeps the heart strong.
Reasoning: This is the explanation. It connects your evidence back to your claim. In this part, you explain why or how your evidence proves that your claim is correct.
Example: Burning calories and building a strong heart are important signs of good physical fitness. Therefore, participating in sports like basketball helps a person maintain a healthy body.

The Role of Conjunctions

the two most helpful kinds for writing arguments:
Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)
These connect two equal ideas. You can remember them using the word FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.
Using "And" (to add info): Jollibee serves delicious chicken, and they also have great spaghetti.
Using "But" (to show difference): The exam was difficult, but our class passed it.
Using "So" (to show a result): It was raining heavily, so the principal canceled the flag ceremony.
Subordinating Conjunctions
These are very important for the Reasoning part of CER. They connect a main idea to a supporting idea, often showing cause and effect. Common examples include: Because, Since, Although, If, and Unless.
Using "Because": Basketball is a healthy sport because it exercises the heart.
Using "Since": Since there is a typhoon, we must stay inside our homes.

Characterization is the process by which an author reveals the personality, traits, and details of a character in a story.
Major vs. Minor Characters
In any story, not all characters have the same level of importance. They are usually divided into two main categories based on their role:
Major Characters: These are the most important characters in the story. The plot revolves around them. Usually, they go through a big change or learn a lesson by the end of the story. The main hero (protagonist) and the main villain (antagonist) are major characters.
Minor Characters: These are the supporting characters. They do not have a lot of focus, and they usually stay the same throughout the story. Their main job is to help the major characters shine, help move the story forward, or provide background details.

Direct vs. Indirect Characterization
Authors have two main ways to share information about a character with the reader:\
Direct Characterization: This is when the author tells the reader exactly what the character is like. The writer uses direct adjectives and statements.
Example: "Juan was a quiet, shy, and very intelligent boy." (The author is directly telling us Juan's traits.)
Indirect Characterization: This is when the author shows things that reveal the personality of a character. The reader has to act like a detective and look for clues to figure out who the character really is.
Example: "Juan looked down at his shoes and blushed when the teacher called his name." (The author doesn't use the word "shy," but Juan's actions show us that he is shy.)
The STEAL Method
When authors use indirect characterization, they usually leave clues in five specific areas. You can remember these areas by using the acronym STEAL.
S - Speech: What does the character say? How does the character speak?
Example: A character who always says "po" and "opo" shows that they are respectful.
T - Thoughts: What is revealed through the character’s private thoughts and feelings?
Example: If a character thinks, "I hope I don't mess up this presentation," it shows they are nervous or lack confidence.
E - Effect on others: How do other characters feel or behave in reaction to the character?
Example: If students suddenly stop talking and sit up straight when a specific teacher walks into the room, it shows the teacher is strict or intimidating.
A - Actions: What does the character do? How do they behave?
Example: A character who shares their baon (snack) with a hungry classmate shows that they are generous and kind.
L - Looks: What does the character look like? How do they dress?
Example: A character wearing a dirty, untucked uniform and messy hair might be disorganized or tired.

Adjectives: Describing the "Who" and "What"
An adjective is a word that modifies—or describes—a noun (a person, place, or thing) or a pronoun. It answers questions like What kind?, Which one?, or How many?. Adjectives give us the physical traits, feelings, or qualities of a subject.
Without an adjective: The student rode the jeepney.
With adjectives: The energetic student rode the crowded jeepney.

Adverbs: Describing the "How," "When," and "Where"
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb (an action), an adjective, or even another adverb. While adjectives describe things, adverbs usually describe actions or the intensity of something. They answer questions like How?, When?, Where?, or To what extent?. Many adverbs end in the letters "-ly," though not all of them do.
Without an adverb: The dog barked.
With adverbs: The dog barked loudly and suddenly.

Characterization is the way a writer reveals the personality of a character in a story.
Imagine a character named Jose:
Basic description: Jose walked into the room. He was a boy. He spoke to the principal.
Description using modifiers: The shy, nervous boy walked quietly into the room. He spoke softly to the strict principal.

"Linear" comes from the word "line." Imagine a straight line connecting points A, B, and C. In this type of story, events happen in chronological order—meaning they are told in the exact order that they happened in time. For example, if you tell a friend a story about your day, you usually start with waking up, then going to school, and finally going home. That is a linear story.

Freytag's Pyramid: The 5 Stages of Plot

Exposition (The Introduction): This is the base of the pyramid. Here, the writer introduces the main characters, the setting (where and when the story happens), and the basic situation. It sets the stage for the reader.
Rising Action (The Build-up): The story starts to move up the pyramid. The main character faces a problem or conflict. This part is full of events that build suspense and make you ask, "What will happen next?"
Climax (The Highest Point): This is the peak of the pyramid! It is the most exciting and intense part of the story. It is the major turning point where the main character must make a big decision or face their biggest challenge.
Falling Action (The Cool Down): The story starts moving down the other side of the pyramid. The excitement begins to settle down. We see the results of the character's actions during the climax, and the loose ends of the story start to get tied up.
Resolution (The Ending): We reach the bottom of the pyramid again. The main problem is solved (for better or worse), and the story comes to a close.

The Power of Reordering: Using Flashbacks
Why use it? Imagine a story that starts right at the climax—the most exciting part—and then jumps back in time to explain how the characters got into that mess! Flashbacks help explain a character's deep secret, show why they act a certain way, or give the reader important clues that were hidden before.
The Effect: Breaking the linear structure with flashbacks grabs your attention.

What is a Flashback?
A flashback is a scene that pauses the main story to show an event that happened further in the past.

The Simple Past Tense: Your Main Story
Most stories are told using the simple past tense. This tense tells the reader about actions that are already finished.

Rule: Use the simple past for the main events happening in your story timeline.
Examples:
Jose walked to the jeepney stop.
He looked at his watch.
The rain started to pour.

The Past Perfect Tense: Your Time Machine
If your main story is already in the past tense, how do you talk about something that happened even earlier? This is where the past perfect tense comes in.

Putting It Together: A Time Travel Example
Let us look at how writers use both tenses together to create a smooth flashback. Read the short paragraph below:
Maria sat (simple past) in the classroom and stared (simple past) at her test paper. She smiled (simple past). She had studied (past perfect) all night. Her mother had quizzed (past perfect) her on the difficult words. Now, Maria felt (simple past) ready.

Rhyme Schemes
A rhyme scheme is the pattern of matching sounds at the end of lines in a poem. To map out a rhyme scheme, we use letters of the alphabet (A, B, C) to label the ending sounds.
Here are the most common rhyme schemes you will see:
ABAB (Alternate Rhyme): In this pattern, the first and third lines rhyme (A), and the second and fourth lines rhyme (B).
The sky is very blue (A)
The sun is shining bright (B)
I want to play with you (A)
Until the dark of night (B)
ABBA (Enclosed Rhyme): In this pattern, the first and fourth lines rhyme (A), like a sandwich holding the second and third lines that also rhyme (B).
I saw a little bird (A)
Up in the mango tree (B)
It sang a song for me (B)
The sweetest sound I heard (A)
Free Verse: This is a poem with no rules! There is no strict rhyming pattern and no strict beat. The poet is "free" to write lines however they want to express their feelings, just like a normal conversation.
Meter (The Heartbeat of the Poem)
If rhyme is the song, meter is the beat or the rhythm. It is the steady heartbeat of a poem.

Sound Devices
Poets also use sound devices, which are special word tricks that create "audio effects" inside our minds.
Alliteration: This happens when words that are close to each other start with the same consonant letter. It makes the phrase catchy.
Examples:
Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
The big brown bear.
Assonance: This is the repeating of the same vowel sounds (A, E, I, O, U) inside words that are close together.
Example: The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain. (Repeating the "a" sound).
Consonance: This is the repeating of consonant sounds anywhere in the words (usually in the middle or at the end), but not at the very beginning.
Examples: 
Pitter patter. (Repeating the "t" sound).
Example: Tick tock. (Repeating the "ck" sound).
Onomatopoeia: This is a big word for a simple idea: sound words. These are words that sound exactly like the noise they describe. When you read them, you can hear the action!
Examples: Boom!, Sizzle, Crash, Meow, Woosh

What is Literal Language?
When you speak literally, you are telling the exact truth. There is no hidden meaning, and you do not need to use your imagination to understand what is being said.

What is Figurative Language?
When you speak figuratively, you use words to create a special effect or a strong feeling. Figurative language goes beyond the dictionary meaning of the words.

Common Figures of Speech
Figures of speech are the different tools we use to create figurative language. Here are four of the most common and useful figures of speech:
Simile: A simile compares two different things by using the words "like" or "as". It is one of the easiest figures of speech to spot.
Examples:
"The student is as busy as a bee finishing his modules.”
"During the traffic jam, the jeepney moved like a turtle."

Metaphor: A metaphor also compares two different things, but it does not use "like" or "as". It states that one thing is another thing to show how they are similar.
Examples:
"The classroom is an oven during the summer months." (The classroom is not a real oven, but it is extremely hot.)
"My father is a rock when our family faces problems." (The father is not a stone; he is strong and supportive.)

Personification: This happens when we give human qualities, feelings, or actions to things that are not human, such as animals, objects, or nature.
Examples:
"The bamboo trees danced and bowed to the strong wind." (Trees cannot really dance or bow like humans do.)
"My alarm clock yelled at me to wake up early for school." (Clocks cannot yell, but the sound was loud and demanding.)

Hyperbole: This is an extreme exaggeration. We use hyperbole when we want to show strong feelings or make a dramatic point. It is so exaggerated that it cannot possibly be true.
Examples:
"My backpack weighs a ton with all these books!" (The bag is heavy, but it does not really weigh 2,000 pounds.)
"I am so hungry I could eat a whole lechon by myself." (The person is very hungry, but no one can eat a whole roasted pig alone.)

Diction: The Power of Choosing Words
Diction is simply the writer's choice of words and style of expression. Just like you choose the right clothes for the right occasion—like wearing a uniform to school and casual clothes to the mall—writers choose specific words to fit their message.
Good diction helps the reader picture exactly what is happening.
Weak Diction: "The food is good."
Strong Diction: "The chicken adobo is savory and delicious."
In the second sentence, the writer chose specific words to make your mouth water. That is the power of diction!
Denotation vs. Connotation
To understand word choices better, we need to look at two ways words have meaning: denotation and connotation.
Denotation is the strict, literal dictionary definition of a word.
Connotation is the feeling, idea, or emotion that a word gives off. Connotations can be positive (good), negative (bad), or neutral (okay).

Modal Verbs for Interpretation
Modal verbs are special helping verbs that we use alongside main verbs. They do not change their spelling, and they do not need an "-s" at the end.

To show strong certainty or logical guesses (Must):
Example: "The boy's clothes are soaking wet. It must be raining outside."
Interpretation: We are very sure it is raining based on the clues.
To show possibility (May, Might, Could):
Example: "The main character packed a heavy jacket. She might be traveling to a cold place like Baguio."
Interpretation: We are not 100% sure, but it is a strong possibility.
To show advice or expectation (Should):
Example: "The villain should apologize to the townspeople."
Interpretation: We expect this to happen, or we believe it is the right thing to do.

Tone vs. Mood: The Feelings in a Story

Tone: This is the author's attitude toward the subject, the characters, or the audience.
Mood: This is the atmosphere of the story. It is the emotion or feeling that the reader gets while reading.
Tone Example: "The little puppy tripped over its own giant paws and did a funny somersault into the grass." (The author’s tone is playful and affectionate).
Mood Example: "The heavy rain pounded against the old wooden windows, and the lights flickered until the room went completely black." (The mood created for the reader is suspenseful or scary).

The Author's Style
Every writer has a unique way of telling a story.

Diction (Word Choice)
Diction simply means the words an author chooses to use.

Imagery (Sensory Details)
Imagery is when an author paints a picture in the reader's mind using words.

Sight: The golden mangoes hung heavily from the green branches.
Sound: The loud honking of the jeepneys filled the busy street.
Smell: The sweet aroma of garlic frying in the pan drifted through the house.
Taste: The cold, crushed ice and sweet ube in the halo-halo refreshed him.
Touch: The rough, scratching sand burned against her bare feet.

Syntax (Sentence Structure)
Syntax is a fancy word for how sentences are built.

Short Sentences: Used for fast action, excitement, or suspense. (He ran. He hid. The footsteps got closer.)
Long, Flowing Sentences: Used for calm moments, daydreaming, or detailed descriptions.

How Style Choices Shape the Reader's Experience
An author's style acts like a remote control for the reader's emotions. By mixing tone, mood, diction, imagery, and syntax, writers decide exactly what kind of journey you will take.

The Writing Process: Revision vs. Editing
Many beginning writers think that revising and editing are the exact same thing, but they are actually two completely different tools in your kit.
Revision
The word revise literally means "to see again." When you revise your work, you are looking at the big picture.
Editing
Editing is the clean-up phase. You do this after you are happy with your main ideas.

Connecting Ideas: Coherence, Cohesion, and Transitions
A good piece of writing should flow smoothly like a calm river, not feel like a bumpy tricycle ride. To achieve this, a writer uses three special tools:
Coherence: This means your whole essay makes sense. A coherent essay has a clear focus, and every paragraph connects back to your main topic. If you are writing about your favorite basketball team, you shouldn't suddenly start writing about your math homework!
Cohesion: While coherence is about the whole essay, cohesion is about how your sentences stick together. It means one sentence naturally leads to the next without confusing the reader.
Transitions: These are your "bridge words." Transitions help you cross from one idea to another.

Rules of the Road: Mechanics
To make sure readers understand exactly what you mean, you must follow the basic rules of writing.
Capitalization: Always capitalize the first letter of a sentence and the word "I". You also must capitalize proper nouns, which are the specific names of people, places, and brands (like Jose Rizal, Manila, or Jollibee).
Punctuation: These marks tell the reader how to read your sentences. Use a period (.) to come to a full stop, a comma (,) to take a short pause, and a question mark (?) when you are asking something.
Verb Tense Consistency: Verbs are action words. "Tense" tells us when the action happened (past, present, or future). Consistency means staying in the same time zone. If your story happened yesterday, keep all your verbs in the past tense.
Incorrect: "I walked to the sari-sari store and buy some candy." (Mixes past and present).
Correct: "I walked to the sari-sari store and bought some candy." (Consistent past tense).

Looking Inside: Reflective Writing
Reflective writing is like looking in a mirror. Instead of just giving facts like a news report, reflective writing asks you to share your personal thoughts, feelings, and opinions about an experience.

What is Paragraph Coherence?
A paragraph is a group of sentences about one main idea. Paragraph coherence means that all the sentences in that paragraph are logically connected to each other.

The Mechanics: How to Make Your Writing Coherent
To make your paragraphs coherent, you can use four simple "mechanics" or tools:
Using Transition Words
Transition words are signposts. They tell the reader what is coming next.
To add information: and, also, besides, furthermore
To show time or order: first, next, then, finally, meanwhile
To show contrast (differences): but, however, on the other hand
To show a result: because, so, therefore, as a result
Using Pronouns
Instead of repeating the same noun over and over, you can use pronouns (like he, she, it, they, this, these). This links the current sentence back to the previous one.
Without Pronouns: Maria loves mangoes. Maria eats mangoes every day.
With Pronouns: Maria loves mangoes. She eats them every day.
Repeating Key Words
Sometimes, repeating an important word reminds the reader of what the main topic is. You don't want to repeat every word, but repeating the "star" word of your paragraph keeps the focus clear.
Example: To make a good adobo, you need patience. This adobo must simmer slowly so the meat becomes tender.
Arranging Ideas in Logical Order
Your sentences should follow a sequence that makes sense.
Chronological (Time) Order: Tell a story exactly as it happened (Morning → Afternoon → Night).
Step-by-Step Order: Explain how to do something from step 1 to the final step.