AFS 101 9/8

Liberatory education is recognizable by its moments of genius and flashes of insight that point to freedom for the Black diaspora.
The ongoing Black struggle centers on liberation, not simply acceptance or liking from others.

Civil War began as a Union-preserving effort; Southern cotton states fought to retain a slave society.
America’s founding and ongoing white supremacy shaped institutions and policy throughout history.
Postwar Reconstruction (roughly $1865 ext{--}1877$ ) offered a brief window for Black political, legal, and economic advancement.

After the war, schools for freed people (often sharecroppers) emerged; many freedpeople wanted to learn to read.
Juneteenth marks emancipation for many enslaved people; Emancipation Proclamation (issued by Lincoln) provided the legal basis for emancipation in rebellious states.
The Emancipation Proclamation targeted states in rebellion; effect varied by location and time.

Freedmen's Bureau played a key role in establishing schools and supporting Black education.
General O. O. Howard led the Bureau; Howard University is named after him.
Early teachers were often white Northerners, with a preference for Black teachers where possible.
Many white Southerners resisted Black schooling; some preferred illiteracy for Black citizens.

Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) became central to Black professional advancement (doctors, lawyers, teachers, etc.).
Federal funding and religious ties helped sustain HBCUs; they contributed to building a Black middle class.
Black professionals educated at HBCUs helped sustain the community financially and socially.

Booker T. Washington promoted vocational training and practical skills (e.g., farming, trades) over immediate pursuit of classical liberal arts.
Atlanta Compromise (1895) urged Black people to cast down their bucket where they were and to focus on self-improvement within the South; also urged whites to invest in Black opportunity.
Washington allied with white philanthropists (e.g., Carnegie, Rosenwald) to fund Tuskegee Institute (founded 1881), later Tuskegee University.
He was seen by many as navigating white power structures to gain Black advancement; labeled by some as a “sellout” or “Uncle Tom.”
Washington’s approach faced critique from Black leaders who emphasized civil rights and voting rights.
He wielded significant influence, including influencing political appointments and access to White House circles; he was known as the “Wizard of Tuskegee.”
Some Black critics argued his approach discouraged direct challenge to white supremacy and lynching.

W. E. B. Du Bois emerged as a leading Black intellectual advocating for civil rights, voting rights, and political action.
Souls of Black Folk (1895) and the chapter "Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others" critique Washington’s gradualism and call for more assertive civil rights strategies.
Du Bois emphasized political action, the vote, and legal challenges as pathways to true freedom.
He educated at Fisk University and Harvard; he faced discrimination in academia and contended for Black intellectual leadership.
Du Bois supported Pan-Africanism later in life and was associated with debates over communism late in life; his political stance became controversial in some circles.

Niagara Movement (late 1890s) was a direct challenger to Washington’s approach, advocating for immediate civil rights and political equality.
Afro-American League (1889) preceded Niagara Movement but was short-lived.
The Boston riot of 1903 highlighted white resistance to Black leadership and organization in the North.

Washington and Du Bois represented two ends of a spectrum: vocational accommodation vs. full civil rights advocacy. Both influenced Black leadership and strategy.
The era produced a complex network of Black leaders (e.g., Trotter, Du Bois, Washington) with diverse strategies and alliances (including ties to Northern elites and White House interactions).
The movement laid groundwork for long-term Black advancement, including higher education, professional work, and political consciousness.

Madam C. J. Walker: early Black entrepreneur and symbol of Black economic empowerment; linked to a broader culture of Black business.
Roosevelt and Booker T. Washington had notable interactions (e.g., Washington attending White House events).
The Black church remained a critical, though sometimes under-discussed, source of liberation and community organization.

Liberatory education = moments of genius and signposts toward freedom in Black communities.
Reconstruction offered a brief window of Black political and economic progress; it was followed by backlash and the entrenchment of white supremacy.
HBCUs played a central role in building a Black middle class and professional leadership.
Booker T. Washington advocated vocational education and cautious engagement with white power structures; Du Bois championed civil rights, political action, and formal equality.
Niagara Movement and Afro-American League represented organized opposition to Washington’s gradualist approach.
The legacy of these debates shaped Black educational strategy, civil rights activism, and the enduring quest for liberation.