The War for Independence and the Articles of Confederation

The War for Independence: 1775-1783

Changing Attitudes Move Towards Independence

  • Cost: Rising costs associated with British rule.

  • Britain's "Treachery": Perceived betrayal by the British government.

  • Prohibitory Act (1775): This act restricted trade, prompting further resentment.

  • "Declaration of War": The escalating conflict viewed in light of British actions.

  • Common Sense by Thomas Paine: A pivotal pamphlet arguing for independence.

    • Blamed King George III and the established system.

    • Advocated for a republic as the only viable government system.

  • Hessian Mercenaries: Hired soldiers from Germany, further angering colonists.

  • Lord Dunmore and Slaves: Dunmore, the governor of Virginia, offered freedom to slaves who joined the British cause.

  • 15 Battles Between April 1775 and July 1776: Initial focus was to have the King address their complaints.

The Declaration of Independence

  • The Declaration of Independence is viewed as a cornerstone of American history.

    • Celebrated as a symbol of freedom and equality.

    • Various groups interpret its significance differently.

  • Key Questions:

    • How do differing perspectives affect the document’s interpretation?

    • Identify which groups hold important principles from the Declaration.

  • Patriots:

    • Identify three significant grievances connected to the principles outlined in the Declaration.

  • Loyalists: Those who remained loyal to Britain during the conflict.

  • Other Groups:

    • Women: Contributions during the revolution.

    • Black Americans: Their struggles for freedom.

    • American Indians: Their position during and post-war.

Principles of the Declaration of Independence

  1. Natural Rights: Rights that are inherent and cannot be taken away.

  2. Equality: A principle emphasizing equal rights for all individuals.

  3. Government by Consent: A legitimate government must derive its authority from the governed.

  4. Right to Alter or Abolish Government: Citizens have the right to change their government if it becomes abusive.

  5. Grievances Against the King: Lists of specific complaints against King George III that justify seeking independence.

Loyalists

  • Many loyalists had strong ties to England, including tenant farmers, wealthy merchants, and government officials.

  • Fears: Chaos in the absence of British authority.

  • Estimates suggest about 33% of colonists supported the British.

Neutrals

  • Groups like Quakers and Germans sought to remain uninvolved in the conflict.

  • America was increasingly divided into Patriots and Loyalists.

  • Loyalists and moderates retreated from Congress following the Declaration.

Britain vs. Americans: Advantages and Disadvantages

  • On the Eve of War:

    • Washington faced inadequate supplies, weapons, and manpower.

    • Continental Congress could not raise funds through taxation.

    • Poor training of soldiers.

  • Selection of George Washington: The Second Continental Congress appointed him as commander of the Continental Army in 1775.

Military Strategies

  • American Strategies:

    • Attrition/guerilla tactics aimed to gradually wear down the British forces.

  • British Strategies:

    • Divide and conquer to separate colonies into North and South.

    • Use Loyalists and Native Americans to counteract American forces.

    • Blockade ports to prevent aid from France.

The American Economy (1768-1783)

  • Economic disruptions caused by British blockades.

  • Reliance on domestic goods, development of homespun textiles.

  • Issued paper money leading to high inflation.

    • Distinction between Continental currency and state currency.

Phases of the War

Phase I: The Northern Campaign (1775-1776)

  • Key events include:

    • Victory at Ticonderoga.

    • Failed invasion of Canada.

    • Battle of Quebec (1775).

Phase II: New York & Pennsylvania (1777-1778)

  • Notable events:

    • Battle of Trenton (December 1776) where Washington crossed the Delaware.

The Turning Point of the War: Saratoga (Sept-Oct 1777)

  • The American victory here persuaded France to join the American cause.

  • Led to Benedict Arnold's eventual treason due to disillusionment.

  • Reinvigorated the American will to fight.

Valley Forge Winter (1777-78)

  • Arrival of Baron von Steuben and Marquis de Lafayette drastically improved the Continental Army’s capabilities.

Phase III: The War in the South (1780-1781)

  • Use of loyalist slaves to desert their masters.

  • Guerilla tactics employed effectively by US General Nathaniel Greene and figures like Daniel Morgan and Francis Marion.

The Battle of Yorktown (1781)

  • Washington and Count de Rochambeau's forces led to Cornwallis’ surrender on October 19, 1781.

Reasons for Britain’s Defeat

  • Underestimated American resolve and capabilities.

  • Appointment of poor generals and misunderstanding the nature of the conflict.

  • Americans were highly motivated due to their fight for independence.

  • French assistance played a pivotal role in American victory.

North America After the Treaty of Paris (1783)

  • Britain recognized American Independence with the Mississippi River as the western boundary.

  • The U.S. was expected to repay debts owed to British creditors.

  • Fair treatment towards loyalists was stipulated.

Crisis of Demobilization (1783)

  • Events in Newburgh, NY, highlighted Congress's failure to fulfill obligations to soldiers.

  • Soldiers threatened a military coup due to concerns about their future.

  • Washington’s appeal on March 15, 1783, emphasized loyalty to Congress, preserving civilian government.

The Revolution and Native Americans

  • Most Native Americans sided with Britain; however, their defeat didn't equate to the loss of their cause.

  • Ongoing battles in the West in 1782.

  • The expansion intensified, pushing 10,000s into Ohio, forcing tribes to cede lands.

The War and Society

  • African Americans: Fought on both sides; some gained freedom through military service.

  • Slave Issues: Southern defenders of slavery claimed it was compatible with liberty, resulting in racist ideologies.

  • Religion: The Anglican Church weakened during this time.

  • Women’s Role: Despite contributions, little changed regarding their societal status; access to education remained limited.

  • Loyalists: Many lost property and businesses, leading thousands to relocate to Canada.

Articles of Confederation (1781-1789)

Grievances addressed in the Declaration

  • Taxation: "For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent."

  • National Authority: "He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good."

  • Equality/Individual Liberties: "He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people."

  • Expansion/Adding New States: "He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States…"

  • States’ Rights: "Suspending our own Legislatures…"

  • Trade/Commerce: "For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world."

  • Legal Disputes: "He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone…"

Articles Structure and Intent

  • Main Goals:

    • Unity and Consensus among states requiring a supermajority for major decisions.

    • State sovereignty emphasized while a weak central government was created intentionally.

    • Unicameral legislature; no executive or judicial branch to prevent tyranny.

    • Framework for managing western lands established.

Obligations of States

  • Respect state sovereignty and provide funds and troops when requested.

  • Honor treaties established by the central government.

  • Ensure equal treatment of citizens among states and respect state laws.

  • Compliance with Congressional decisions was expected.

Evaluation of the Articles of Confederation

  • The central government lacked enforcement powers and was largely ineffective.

  • Issues arose as states created separate treaties, taxed each other's goods, printed their own money, and raised private militias.

Shays’ Rebellion (1786-7)

  • Led by Shay, farmers revolted against oppressive debts and tax burdens.

  • Revealed the weaknesses in the democratic system established by the Articles and prompted calls for reform.

The Constitutional Convention: The Patriots in Philadelphia

  • Aimed to preserve the union and promote democracy, initially to revise the Articles but eventually leading to the creation of a new Constitution.

  • Compromises included the Virginia Plan, New Jersey Plan, and the Great Compromise, addressing representation.

Principles of the U.S. Constitution

  • Republicanism: Representative government model.

  • Separation of powers intended to prevent tyranny with distinct executive and legislative branches.

  • Most state constitutions and the U.S. Constitution contained a bill of rights to protect individual liberties.