Indian History Notes

Ancient India

• Indian history is divided into three periods:
  • Ancient India
  • Medieval India
  • India under British Rule
• Modern India is divided into:
  • The British Period
  • The Indian Freedom Struggle and Partition of India

Indus Valley Civilization

• Development: Developed on the banks of the Indus River.
• Extent:
  • North: Jammu
  • South: Ahmednagar
  • Gujarat
• Period: 3000 BC - 1500 BC (Some sources mention 2500 BC - 1800 BC)
• Main Cities: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal
• Key Sites Discovered:
  • Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
  • Lothal (Gujarat)
  • Banwali (Haryana)
  • Ropar (Punjab)
• Features:
  • Town Planning: Great buildings, well-planned roads, cities, and drainage systems.
  • Economy: Hunting and agriculture were main sources of livelihood.
  • First to produce cotton.
• Frontiers: Manda (Chenab River, near Jammu) to Daimabad (Godavari River, Ahmednagar).
• Over 1000 sites, with 200 in the Kutch-Saurashtra region of Gujarat.
• Early Harappan Period: c. 3200-2600 BC

Important Sites

• Harappa:
  • Located on the banks of the Ravi River in Punjab.
  • First Indus civilization settlement discovered.
  • Premier city based on size and variety of objects found.
• Mohenjodaro:
  • Located in Sindh on the bank of the Indus River.
  • Largest known Indus city.
  • Town planning, houses, seals provided key information.
• Kalibangan:
  • Located in Rajasthan, excavated in the 1960s.
  • Seemed to be a provincial capital, similar to Mohenjodaro.
• Lothal:
  • Located in Gujarat.
  • Outpost for sea-trade with West Asian civilizations.
• Alamgirpur:
  • Located towards the east in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab
• Most Harappan sites located in the flood-plains of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra rivers.

Features of Indus Valley Civilization

• Political:
  • Central government suggested by assembly hall and citadels.
• Socio-economic:
  • Sowing: Seeds sown in flood plains in November after flood water receded.
  • Harvest: Wheat and Barley harvested in April before next flood.
  • Diet: Wheat, rice, barley, milk, dates, fish, eggs, and animal flesh.
  • Cotton: First produced by Indus Valley people.
  • Dresses: Spun and woven cotton and wool dresses.
  • Livelihood: Agriculture, hunting, fishing, rearing animals/birds.
• Society:
  • Artistic Sense: Reflected in pottery and vase paintings.
• Town Planning:
  • Great buildings, double-storeyed dwellings, drainage system.
  • Planned cities and roads.

The Vedic Period

Early Vedic Period (1500 BC - 1000 BC)

• Aryans:
  • Originally inhabitants of Central Asia around the Caspian Sea.
  • Entered through Hindukush mountains.
  • Period: 2500-2000 BC (Note: There seems to be a discrepancy in the provided dates. This should be verified with other sources.)
• Main Features:
  • Nature Worship: Admired and worshipped sun, fire, and water.
  • Religion: $Yagna$ was an important part of their religion.
  • Organized System: Matured socially and politically.
• Religious Books:

Vedas:

• Sacred books, oldest known books of Indus Valley Civilization.
• Four in number:
  • (a) Rig Veda: Oldest, prayers to Gods (Vayu, Varun, Indra, Agni).
  • (b) Sam Veda: Dealt with music.
  • (c) Yajur Veda: Dealt with formulae and rituals.
  • (d) Atharva Veda: Dealt with medicines.

The Puranas:

• 18 in number.
• Contained details of Aryan civilization (rituals, traditions, formulae).

The Upanishads:

• Main source of Indian philosophy.
• 300 in number.
• Brahmanas and Aranyakas are also important religious books.

The Aryans

• Semi-nomadic pastoral people, inhabited area around Caspian Sea in Central Asia.
• Entered India through Khyber Pass (Hindukush Mountains) around 1500 BC.
• Entered in more than two waves in search of new pastures.
• Zend Avesta (Iran): Language has resemblance with Indo-European Languages, indicating possible entry of some Aryans to India via Iran.
• Aryan Word Origin: Comes from 'ari', meaning 'foreigners' or 'strangers' in Vedic times.
• First Reference: Bagharkai Peace Treaty (Western Asia 1350 BC) between Mitanni and Hittites kingdoms, Aryan gods (Varuna, Indra, Mitra, Nasatya) invoked as witnesses.

Later Vedic Period (2000-700 BC)

• (i) Brahmanical Age: Resembles modern-day Hindu religion.
• (ii) Society: Divided into four castes:
  • (a) Brahmins: Priestly class.
  • (b) Kshatriyas: Fighters.
  • (c) Vaisyas: Business class.
  • (d) Sudras: Labor class.
• (iii) Epics: Two great epics written:
  • Mahabharata by Ved Vyas.
  • Ramayana by Maharishi Valmiki.
  • Shastras dealt with Indian philosophy and concepts of birth, death and God.

Rise of Religions (other than Hinduism)

Buddhism:

• (i) Initiated by: Siddhartha (later Buddha), Kshatriya prince of Shakya clan.
• Born: Lumbini (Nepal) near Kapilavastu, 6th century BC.
• Father: King Shuddhodhana.
• Enlightenment: Attained under a pipal tree at Bodh Gaya.
• First Sermons: Sarnath in UP.
• Death: Kusinagar in UP.
• Sects of Buddhism:
  • Mahayan (the higher vehicle): Believes Buddha to be a God.
  • Hinyan (the lesser vehicle): Does not believe Buddha was a God, more pristine form.
  • Vajrayan: Tantric form, prevalent in Laddakh and Bhutan.
• Division: Buddhism divided into Hinyan and Mahayan at the fourth Buddhist council held during the reign of Harshavardhan
• Main Teachings: The eight-fold path:
  • right faith,
  • thought,
  • action,
  • livelihood,
  • efforts,
  • speech,
  • remembrance,
  • concentration,
  • belief in $Nirvana$ (freedom from cycle of birth and death),
  • ahimsa (non-violence),
  • law of karma.

Jainism:

• (ii) Founded by: Rishabha (Kshatriya).
• Peak attained under: Vardhamana Mahavira (24th Tirthankara).
• Mahavira's birth: Kundagrama in 540 BC (Bihar).
• 'Kaivalya': Perfect knowledge attained after becoming ascetic at 30.
• 'Jina': One who has conquered happiness and misery.
• Death: Pawapuri near Rajagir in Bihar.
• Jainism sects: digambars and shwetambara.
  • digambars: More pristine form, remain naked.
  • shwetambara: Wear white clothes.
• Main features:
  • The tri-ratna concept:
    • (a) right knowledge,
    • (b) right faith,
    • (c) right conduct.
  • Belief in karma.
  • Belief in ahimsa.

Various Important Empires and Dynasties

• Magadha Empire:
  • Around 542 BC
  • Prominent kings: Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Shishunaga, and Nanda.
• Mauryan Dynasty:
  • 321 - 232 BC
  • Ashoka: 273-232 BC, Kalinga War: 261 BC
  • Founded by Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka was another prominent king.
• Gupta Dynasty (Golden Age):
  • AD 320-550
  • Prominent rulers: Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II.
• Harshavardhana:
  • AD 606-647
  • Last Hindu king of North India
• Rajputs:
  • AD 650-1200
  • Prominent rulers: Prithvi Raj Chauhan and Jaichand Rathore

Other Important Dynasties:

• (i) Chalukyas: AD 550-642, Prominent rulers were Pulkeshin I and II
• (ii) Cholas: Founded by Rajaraja-I, Prominent rulers were Rajendra Chola and Rajendra III
• (iii) Rashtrakutas: AD 753-973, Prominent rulers were Krishna I, Amogha Varsha
• (iv) Yadavas: AD 1191-1318, Prominent rulers were Ramachandra and Singhana
• (v) Vijayanagar's empire: AD 1336-1646, Krishnadevaraya was the prominent ruler in the Deccan part of India

Religious Books (Detailed)

1. The Vedas:

   • Most sacred books of early Aryans.
   • Four Vedas:
     • (i) Rig Veda: (Aitaraya Brahamana and Kaushitika Brahamana) - Book of Hymns
     • (ii) Sama Veda: (Jaminya Brahamana and Tandyamaha Brahamana) - Book of Melodies and Charts
     • (iii) Yajur Veda: (Satpatha Brahamana) - book of Sacrifices
     • (iv) Atharva Veda: (Gopatha Brahamana) - Book of magical and Technical formulae

2. The Brahmanas:

   • Throw light on socio-political life of Aryans.
   • Explain Aryan religion, especially sacrifice.
   • Contain ritualistic formulae for respective Veda and Priests.

3. The Aranyakas:

   • Forest books, treatises on mysticism and philosophy.
   • Concluding portion of the Brahmanas.
   • Explains metaphysics and symbolism of sacrifice.

4. The Upanishads:

   • Main source of Indian philosophy.
   • About 300 Upanishads.
   • 10 have attracted worldwide attention as they deal with philosophy and theology of the Aryans.
   • Commentaries appended to the Aranyakas, deal mainly with philosophy and religion.

5. The Puranas:

   • 18 in number, Bhagawat Purana and Vishnu Purana are most important.
   • Give religious and historical details of the Aryan civilization.
   • Contain legends, rituals, tradition and moral codes.

6. Manu Smriti:

   • Manu was the great law-giver in the Aryan period.
   • Deals with laws of inheritance, duties of kings and his subjects.
   • Manu is considered the first law-giver of India.

Doctrines

• 1. Nayasutra (Logical Doctrine):

  • Priest/Teacher: Gautama Maharshi
  • Important Information: Hindu doctrines based on logic

• 2. Vaisheshika (Monic Doctrine):

  • Priest/Teacher: Karnad and Ramanuja
  • Important Information: Basis of Vishistadwaita

• 3. Yogasutra (Yoga Doctrine):

  • Priest/Teacher: Maharishi Pathanjali
  • Important Information: A hormonic doctrine that deals with harmony between mind and body through yoga.

• 4. Sankya sutra (Numerical Doctrine):

  • Priest/Teacher: Kapil Maharishi and Madhvacharya
  • Important Information: Duite Siddhanata which deals with Numerals

• 5. Uttara Meemamsa:

  • Priest/Teacher: Badatayans
  • Important Information: Major upanishadic work taken up by the rishis of that time

• 6. Poorva Meemamsa:

  • Priest/Teacher: Jaimini Maharshi
  • Important Information: About worship via Yajna (rituals) and also become the basis of Karmamarga.

Growth of Buddhism and Jainism:

• Sixth BC, also called the period of religious unrest.
• Result of revolt against the supremacy of Brahmanical priests.
• Several schools of philosophy opposing Brahmanism developed, led by the Kshatriyas of the royal families of Magadha.
• They helped in the propagation of Jainism and Buddhism.

Buddhism (Continued):

• Fourth greatest religion in the world, originated in India.
• Received state patronage of king like Ashoka the Great.
• Spread to neighbouring countries like Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Japan Vietnam, Thailand.
• The Schism (or split) in Buddhism:
  • During 4th Buddhist council held in Kashmir, Buddhists split into two groups.
  • Himanyas: Believed in simple teachings of Buddha, Pali was the main language
  • Mahayamas: Preachers with doctrine of bhakti, Sanskrit was the main language

Founder (Buddhism):

• Founded by Gautama Siddhartha, Kshatriya prince of the Saka clan.
• Born in 567 BC (or 576 BC) at Lumbini in Nepal.
• Son of Suddhodana, Raja of Kapilavastu.

Influence of Buddhism:

• Political Buddhism destroyed rising militant spirit and fostered national unity and universal brotherhood.
• Educational centres were founded at Buddhist Viharas.
• Indian culture spread to regions outside India during the reigns of emperor Ashoka and Kanishka.

Decline of Buddhism:

• Buddhism declined as Hinduism reformed with the rise of the Rajputs as a military force.
• Muslim invasions in the 11th and 12th centuries led to its further disintegration.

Founder (Jainism):

• Founded by Rishabha, who was father of King Bharata.
• Became major religion under Vardhamana Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara.

Doctrine (Jainism):

• Attainment of Nirvana (release from rebirth) through Tri-Ratna (three jewels):
  • (a) Right faith,
  • (b) Right knowledge,
  • (c) Right conduct.
• Belief in Ahmisa or non-violence.
• Belief in Karma, denying God and dismissal of ritual.

Medieval India

• 1206-1526
• Marked by the beginning of the Sultanate of Delhi, established after the conquest of Muhammad Ghouri.
• Period of Sultanate of Delhi: AD 1206-1526.
• Considered the beginning of Muslim rule in India.

Delhi Sultanate

Important dynasties:

• (i) The Slave Dynasty:
  • Period: AD 1206-1290.
  • Founded by: Qutub-ud-din Aibak
  • Prominent rulers: Itutmish and Razia Sultana.
• (ii) The Khilji Dynasty:
  • Period: AD 1290-1320
  • Founded by: Jalal-ud-din Khilji
  • Prominent rulers: Alaud-din Khilji.
• (iii) The Tughlak Dynasty:
  • Period: AD 1320-1414
  • Founded by: Ghiasuddin Tughlak
  • Ibn Batuta: Important African traveller, visited India in 1333.
• (iv) The Lodhi Dynasty:
  • Period: AD 1451-1526.
  • Founded by: Bahlol Lodhi
  • Prominent rulers: Sikander and Ibrahim Lodhi.

Decline of Delhi Sultanate:

• (a) Despotic and military government: Lacked public confidence.
• (b) Degeneration of Delhi sultans
• (c) Vast Sultanate: Difficult to control effectively.
• (d) Financial instability
• (e) Increased number of slaves: 180,000 in Firoz Shah's time First Battle of Panipat:*
  • Fought in 1526 between Ibrahim Lodhi and Babur.
  • Babur invaded India and established the Mughal dynasty.

The Mughal Dynasty (1526-1540 and 1555-1857)

• Extent:
  • 16th Century: Punjab to Bengal, including Jaunpur and Bihar.
  • Included: Kabul, Kashmir, Sindh, Multan, Ajmer, Gujarat, Malwa, Benar, Odisha, Bengal at Akbar's death.
  • End of 17th Century: Kabul, Kandhar, Peshawar to the north of Kaveri.

Important Rulers of Mughal dynasty:

• Reigned from AD 1526-1857 (longest period).
• One of the most important dynasties of India

Babur (1526-1530):

• Founded Mughal empire.
• Defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat on 20 April 1526.
• Defeated Rana Sanga at Khanwa near Fatehpur Sikri in 1527.
• Occupied Agra.
• Defeated Afghans in the Battle of Gorge in 1527.
• Wrote autobiography Tuzuk-i-Babri.
• Died in 1530.

Humayun (1530-1540):

• Son of Babur, ascended throne in 1530.
• Succession challenged by brothers (Kamran, Hindal, Askari) and Afghans.
• Fought Sher Shah at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540).
• Defeated by Sher Shah, escaped to Persia for 12 years.
• Invaded India in 1555, defeated brothers and Afghans.
• Became ruler of India again.
• Died in an accident in 1556.

Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545):

• Afghan, ruled from 1540-1545 after defeating Humayun.
• Empire extended from Brahmaputra to Indus, Himalayas to Narmada.
• Introduced brilliant administration, land revenue policy.
• Issued the coin called Rupia.
• Fixed standard weights and measures.
• Improved communications by building highways, like the Grand Trunk Road (G.T. Road) from Peshawar to Calcutta.
• Introduced military reforms: soldiers directly recruited and paid, soldier's face recorded, horse branded with imperial sign, cantonments were set up

Akbar (1556-1605):

• Eldest son of Humayun, ascended throne at 13 on 14 February 1556.
• Tutor Bairam Khan appointed as regent.
• Most successful Mughal emperor.
• Excellent leader, separated religion and politics.
• Started a new religion called Din-e-Ilahi.

Jahangir (1605-1627):

• Salim, son of Akbar, came to the throne after Akbar's death in AD 1605.
• Known for strict administration of justice.
• Married Mihru-un-nisa (Nur Jahan) in 1611.
• Nur Jahan took active interest in state matters and ruled the empire when Jahangir was ill for a long time.
• Jahangir issued coins jointly in Nur Jahan's named and his own.

Relation with Foreigners:

• Captain William Hawkins came to Jahangir's court in 1608.
• Sir Thomas Roe came to his court in 1615.
• Jahangir initially resisted, then granted permission to establish a trading post at Surat.

Revolts:

• Guru Arjan Dev was martyred during his period.
• Alienated the Sikh Community.

Aurangzeb (1659-1707):

• Imprisoned Shahjahan, crowned at Delhi under title Alamgir.
• Ruled for 50 years, died in February 1707 in Ahmednagar.

Extent of the Empire:

• Extended from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the south, Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the east
• During this period, the Marathas, under Shivaji, rose to power.
• Execution of Sambhaji in 1689 saw the collapse of the Maratha empire.
• Aurangzeb never returned to the north and died in Ahmednagar in February, 1707.

Intolerance of other religions:

• Muslim fanatic, intolerant autocrat.
• Many Hindu temples were demolished, religious festivals, idol worship and pilgrimages were banned during his reign.

Sikh Revolt:

• Aurangzeb captured Guru Teg Bahadur, executed him in 1675 for refusing to embrace Islam.
• Guru Gobind Sing organized followers into militant force