The Italian Wars, the Empire of Charles V, and the Spanish Hegemony of Philip II

The Italian Wars and the End of the Policy of Equilibrium

• The Peace of Lodi ($1454$): This treaty established a policy of equilibrium among the Italian regional states. The objective was to maintain peace so that the states could strengthen themselves and defend against foreign threats without the drain of internal warfare.
• Role of Lorenzo de’ Medici: Known as the "mediator" among these powers, Lorenzo was instrumental in maintaining this delicate balance.
• The End of Peace ($1492$): Following the death of Lorenzo de’ Medici, the internal stability of the Italian peninsula collapsed. Concurrently, European powers like France and Spain, having consolidated their monarchies, began to look toward expansion.
• Charles VIII of Valois (France): He planned a military campaign into Italy to reclaim the Kingdom of Naples.
  • The Pretext: Naples had been taken by Alfonso V of Aragon (Spanish), displacing the French House of Anjou.
  • Exploiting Weakness: In $1492$, in Milan, Ludovico il Moro killed Gian Galeazzo Sforza, who was married to the daughter of Alfonso of Aragon. Fearing invasion from Naples, Ludovico invited Charles VIII for assistance.
• The Descent into Italy ($1494$): Charles VIII entered with a massive army. Italian cities offered little resistance, and he reached Naples with ease.
• The Anti-French League: Seeing the French expansion, Ludovico il Moro (now Duke) turned against Charles VIII. He formed a league with Venice and the Church. This "Anti-French League" was also supported by the Habsburgs and Spain.
• Consequences of the First French Venture:
  • The Kingdom of Naples returned to the Aragonese.
  • The profound weakness of the Italian states was exposed to the world.
  • Political Shifts in Florence: Piero de’ Medici was judged too submissive after giving Pisa and Livorno to Charles VIII. He was exiled, and a Republican government was established ($1494$ – $1512$).

Conflict in Florence: Savonarola vs. the Borgias

• Girolamo Savonarola: A Dominican friar who opposed the luxury of the Medici and the corruption of the Church. He led the Florentine Republic ($1494$ – $1498$), advocating for moral and religious reform. His supporters were called "piagnoni" (the weepers), while his enemies were "arrabbiati" (the angry ones).
• Pope Alexander VI Borgia (Pope from $1492$ to $1503$): Accused of nepotism for naming his son, Cesare Borgia, a cardinal. Cesare was the figure Niccolò Machiavelli considered the "ideal prince" for his territorial conquests.
• The End of Savonarola: In $1498$, Savonarola was arrested and executed for heresy by the Pope and Florentine nobles. The Medici eventually regained power in Florence in $1512$.

Subsequent French Ambitions and the Accord of Noyon

• Louis XII of France: Successor to Charles VIII, he targeted Milan, calling it the "Key of Italy" due to its strategic position.
• Alliances of Louis XII: He secured agreements with Venice (interested in mainland territories), Switzerland, and the Church (promising support for Cesare Borgia).
• Conquest of Milan ($1499$): Ludovico il Moro was sent into exile.
• Francis I of Valois: Successor to Louis XII, he aimed to conquer Northern Italy.
• The Accord of Noyon ($1516$): A peace agreement between Francis I and Spain that established a temporary balance:
  • France retained control of the Duchy of Milan.
  • Spain confirmed its control over Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia.

The Rise of Charles V and the Universal Empire

• Ancestry and Inheritance:
  • Mother: Joanna the Mad (daughter of Ferdinand of Castile and Isabella of Aragon).
  • Father: Philip of Habsburg (son of Emperor Maximilian I).
  • Territories: From his father, he inherited the Habsburg domains and the Netherlands. From his mother, he inherited Spain, the Southern Italian kingdoms (Naples, Sicily, Sardinia), and the American colonies.
• Economic Support: His rise was funded by powerful bankers, specifically the Fugger family.
• Ideal of Universal Empire: Charles V envisioned a Catholic empire reaching "where the sun never sets," spanning from Europe to America, based on religious unity against the Ottoman Turks and the Lutheran Reformation.

The Three Great Obstacles for Charles V

1. The Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther's movement divided the German princes.
2. The Ottoman Empire: Led by Suleiman the Magnificent, threatening European borders.
3. Conflict with Francis I of Valois: Primarily over control of the Italian peninsula.

The Struggle Between Charles V and Francis I ($1521$ – $1526$)

• Casus Belli - The "Habsburg Road": Charles V wanted Milan to create a land bridge connecting his territories from the Netherlands to Southern Italy. France feared complete encirclement by Habsburg lands.
• Battle of Pavia ($1525$): Charles V defeated Francis I and captured Milan.
• Peace of Madrid: Francis I was forced to renounce French claims in Italy and Burgundy.
• League of Cognac ($1525$): Francis I broke the peace treaty and formed an alliance against Charles V with England, Venice, Florence, the Sforzas, and Pope Clement VII.
• The Sack of Rome ($1527$): Infuriated by the Pope's betrayal, Charles V's mercenary infantry, the "Lanzichenecchi" (German for "servants of the country"), invaded and sacked Rome for nearly a year. Pope Clement VII fled to Castel Sant’Angelo. This trauma was viewed by some as divine judgment for Church corruption.
• Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis ($1559$): Signed after Charles V’s death, it dictated:
  • France lost Savoy (Piemonte), which returned to the Savoy dynasty.
  • Spain (Habsburgs) maintained control of Naples, Sardinia, Sicily, Milan, and the "Stato dei Presidi" (fortresses on the Tuscan coast for maritime control).

The Conflict with the Ottoman Empire

• Expansion under Suleiman the Magnificent ($1520$):
  • East: Turks invaded Hungary and advanced toward Vienna.
  • South: Corsairs led by "Barbarossa" conducted raids on Italian and Spanish coasts.
• The Siege of Tunis: Charles V prepared a fleet to liberate Tunis from Suleiman. While Charles V allied with the Pope, France ironically allied with the Ottomans.
• Battle of Lepanto ($7 \text{ October } 1571$): After Charles V's death, a "Holy League" (Spain, Venice, Genoa, Savoy, Pope Pius V) defeated the Turkish fleet. This victory was of massive symbolic importance for Christendom, though strategic gains were limited as the victors were internally divided and Venice later ceded Cyprus back to the Turks.

The Hegemony of Philip II of Spain

• Division of the Empire ($1556$): Charles V abdicated, splitting his domains. His son, Philip II, received Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, and America. His brother, Ferdinand, received Austria and the Imperial title.
• Governance of Philip II:
  • Established his court in Madrid and built the Escorial (a palace-monastery-pantheon).
  • Known as the "Rey Papelero" (Paper King) for his meticulous bureaucratic nature.
  • Managed the state through "Consigli" (Specialized Councils).
• Religious Policy:
  • Defender of Catholicism against Turks, heretics, and non-believers.
  • Limpieza de Sangre (Purity of Blood): A requirement to prove one had no Jewish or Muslim ancestors to hold office.
  • Persecution: Targetting "Conversos" (Jewish converts) and "Moriscos" (Muslim converts). The mass expulsion of Moriscos in $1609$ caused severe economic damage due to the loss of skilled artisans.
• Economic Decline: Constant warfare and a subsistence-based economy led to high taxes, social unrest, and multiple state bankruptcies.

The Revolt in the Netherlands

• Context: The Netherlands was an economic and cultural hub (textiles and banking). The spread of Calvinism clashed with Philip II's Catholic absolutism and the threat of the Inquisition.
• The Rebellion: Led by William of Orange, the Dutch demanded political autonomy and religious freedom.
• Repression: Philip II sent the Duke of Alba to suppress the revolt violently, establishing a special tribunal.
• The Republic of the Seven United Provinces ($1589$): Including provinces like Olanda (Holland), Utrecht, and Frisia, they achieved independence.
• Significance: This was a rare successful rebellion against a supreme monarch, asserting the right to resist tyranny and establishing a unique republican model in a monarchist Europe.
• Conflict with England: Philip II was married to Mary Tudor ("Bloody Mary"). After her death, he clashed with Elizabeth I, who supported the Netherlands and the Anglican faith.