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What is Hadley cell circulation? Air circulation starting at the equator, rising, cooling, and drying biomes circulation
Where does Hadley cell circulation begin? At the equator (0 degrees latitude) biomes circulation
What happens to warm moist air in Hadley cells? It rises, cools, and releases precipitation biomes weather
What type of climate is found around 30 degrees north and south? Deserts biomes climate
What is a rain shadow? A dry area on the leeward side of mountains biomes climate
How does a rain shadow form? Warm moist air rises over mountains, cooling and releasing rain biomes weather
Which mountain range is an example of a rain shadow? The Andes in South America biomes geography
What happens to air after it passes over the windward side of a mountain? It becomes cold and dry on the leeward side biomes weather
What kind of air is found on the leeward side of mountains? Cool, dry air biomes weather
What are the characteristics of rainforests? Lots of plants, very wet, very hot, located near the equator. biomes rainforest
What defines savannahs? Grassy, lots of grazers, have rainy and dry seasons, prone to fires. biomes savannah
What are the conditions in deserts? Hot, dry, plants adapted to avoid water loss, like cacti. biomes desert
Where are boreal forests typically located? Very cold, wet, usually below tundras, found in Canada and Russia. biomes boreal_forest
What is a key feature of tundras? Very cold, dry, near the Arctic Circle, permafrost prevents tree growth. biomes tundra
What characterizes deciduous forests? Hardwood forests, found in eastern United States, have four seasons. biomes deciduous_forest
What are grasslands known for? Located in the central U.S., good fertile soil, lots of grass and grazers. biomes grassland
What are the characteristics of chaparral areas? Hot summers, prone to forest fires, common in California. biomes chaparral
What determines the location of biomes? Climate, specifically temperature and moisture levels. biomes climate
How does moving towards the equator affect climate? It gets hotter and wetter, with higher rainfall and temperatures. biomes equator
What happens as you move toward the equator? You get hotter and wetter, with higher rainfall and temperatures. climate geography
What are the two main types of freshwater biomes? Lakes and rivers. biology freshwater
What characterizes eutrophic lakes? High productivity, lots of algae, and high nutrient levels. biology lakes
What is oligotrophic lake known for? Low productivity, low algae, clear waters, often found in mountain ranges. biology lakes
What defines coral reefs? High diversity, lots of fish, located in photic zones, made of calcium carbonate. biology marine
What are abyssal zones? Deep sea areas, high pressure, no light, home to specially adapted organisms. biology marine
What is the role of phytoplankton in the open ocean? They perform photosynthesis and are abundant in algae. biology marine
What is the littoral zone? The area near the coastline of freshwater lakes, with plenty of sunlight and plant life. biology freshwater
What is the limnetic zone? The open area of a freshwater lake, away from the shoreline. biology freshwater
What is the benthic zone? The lake or sea floor, where organisms live. biology freshwater marine
What distinguishes photic and aphotic zones? Photic zones have light; aphotic zones do not have light. biology marine
What is the intertidal zone? A zone with diverse life adapted to being submerged and exposed to air. biology marine
What is a major biogeochemical cycle mentioned? The carbon cycle. biology ecology
What is a major contributor to the carbon cycle from humans? Combustion of fossil fuels carbon_cycle human_impact
What are carbon sinks and reservoirs? Forests, oceans, fossil fuels, atmosphere, rocks, and soil carbon_cycle reservoirs sinks
What process releases carbon dioxide in the carbon cycle? Cellular respiration carbon_cycle respiration
What does photosynthesis do in the carbon cycle? Pulls carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere carbon_cycle photosynthesis
What does respiration add to the atmosphere? Carbon dioxide carbon_cycle respiration
What is the formula for glucose? C6H12O6 biology glucose
What is the process of water changing from liquid to gas called? Evaporation evaporation water_cycle
What is precipitation? Rain or snow falling from clouds precipitation water_cycle
What is runoff in the water cycle? Water that flows over the ground after precipitation runoff water_cycle
What is nitrogen fixation? Bacteria pulling nitrogen from the atmosphere using roots nitrogen_cycle nitrogen_fixation
What is transpiration? Evaporation of water from plants transpiration water_cycle
What can decomposition lead to over millions of years? Fossil fuel formation carbon_cycle decomposition
What do humans contribute to the carbon cycle through industry? Carbon emissions carbon_cycle industry
What is the role of oceans in the carbon cycle? Act as carbon sinks and reservoirs carbon_cycle oceans
What is a key step in the water cycle related to groundwater? Percolation groundwater water_cycle
What is a major step in the nitrogen cycle related to plants? Nitrogen fixation by bacteria on roots nitrogen_cycle plants
What is nitrogen fixation? Bacteria pull nitrogen from the atmosphere using their roots, making it accessible to plants. bacteria nitrogen plants
Where are nitrogen-fixing bacteria located? On the roots of plants. bacteria nitrogen roots
What is denitrification? The release of nitrogen back into the atmosphere by bacteria. bacteria denitrification nitrogen
What is ammonification? The conversion of ammonia by bacteria in the nitrogen cycle. ammonification bacteria nitrogen
What is the role of bacteria in the nitrogen cycle? Bacteria are key components, involved in nitrogen fixation, denitrification, and ammonification. bacteria cycle nitrogen
Does phosphorus have an atmospheric form? No, phosphorus does not have an atmospheric or gaseous form. atmosphere cycle phosphorus
How does phosphorus enter the environment from rocks? Through weathering, where it gets washed away by environmental factors. phosphorus rocks weathering
What are limiting factors for plant and algae growth? Nitrogen and phosphorus are considered limiting factors. limiting_factors nitrogen phosphorus
What can excessive fertilizers cause? Eutrophication or algae overgrowth in waterways. algae eutrophication fertilizers
What happens when algae die after overgrowth? They consume oxygen during decomposition, causing hypoxia in water. algae hypoxia oxygen
Why is eutrophication a problem for aquatic organisms? It leads to a lack of oxygen (hypoxia), harming aquatic life. aquatic eutrophication organisms
What should you review for the unit 1a test? Notes, pictures, fill in the blanks, and scientific method notes. review study test
What is the main focus of Unit 2 in AP Environmental Science? Biodiversity apes biodiversity
What are the three levels of biodiversity? Genetic biodiversity, ecosystem biodiversity, species biodiversity biodiversity levels
What is genetic diversity? Variance of genes or traits within individuals of a population diversity genetic
Why is high genetic diversity beneficial? Increases likelihood of adaptation to environmental disturbances benefits genetic_diversity
What is species diversity? Diversity of different types of organisms in an ecosystem diversity species
What is species richness? Count of the total number of different species in an ecosystem richness species
What is species evenness? Distribution or balance of population sizes of different species evenness species
How does species evenness benefit an ecosystem? Provides resilience against diseases affecting dominant species benefits ecosystem
What does ecosystem biodiversity refer to? Variance in different ecosystems found in a given area biodiversity ecosystem
Which biome has high ecosystem diversity? Tropical rainforest biomes diversity
Which biome has lower ecosystem diversity? Desert biome biomes diversity
What is the impact of lower ecosystem diversity on species richness? It leads to a lot lower ecosystem diversity and supports less species richness. biodiversity ecosystems
What are ecosystem services? Financial benefits obtained from ecosystems, categorized into four key types. ecosystem services
What are provisioning services? These are goods provided directly to humans by ecosystems, like wood for furniture. ecosystem provisioning services
What are supporting services? Processes by ecosystems that support human actions, like pollination by insects. ecosystem services supporting
What are regulating services? Ecosystems stabilize climate and environmental factors, saving money on cleanup costs. ecosystem regulating services
What are cultural services? Recreational or intellectual benefits from nature, such as tourism and research. cultural ecosystem services
How can humans disrupt ecosystem services? Drilling for oil, like in the Deepwater Horizon spill, disrupts fishing and tourism. disruption ecosystem services
What is the theory of island biogeography? It explains species richness based on island distance from the mainland and size. biogeography islands
How does distance from the mainland affect species richness? Closer islands have higher species richness due to easier migration of species. biogeography migration species
How does island size affect species richness? Larger islands have higher species richness due to greater habitat diversity. biogeography island size
What is the relationship between island area and species number? As island area increases, the number of species also increases. biogeography island relationship
What is the relationship between island area and number of species? As island area increases, the number of species supported also increases. ecology islands species
What is unique about island ecosystems? They offer a narrow range of food and habitat choices to species. ecology habitat islands
What adaptations can occur in species on islands? Species can develop specific adaptations to narrow food and habitat choices. adaptations ecology species
How did the dodo bird evolve? The dodo bird evolved from a member of the pigeon family around 20 million years ago. dodo ecology evolution
Why did the dodo bird lose its ability to fly? It lost flight due to lack of competition and predators on Mauritius. dodo ecology flight
What happened to the dodo bird when humans arrived? The dodo bird went extinct due to hunting and inability to compete with invasive species. dodo ecology extinction
What is ecological tolerance? Ecological tolerance refers to the range of conditions an organism can tolerate before injury or death. ecology organisms tolerance
What is the optimal range for human body temperature? The optimal range for human body temperature is about 97 to 99 degrees Fahrenheit. biology humans temperature
What happens if an organism exceeds its optimal range? It enters the zone of physiological stress. ecology organisms stress
What is the zone of intolerance? The zone of intolerance is when conditions lead to death, beyond physiological stress limits. ecology intolerance organisms
Why is genetic diversity important? Genetic diversity allows for a wider range of tolerance among individuals of a species. ecology genetic_diversity species
What is genetic diversity's role in environmental tolerance? Genetic diversity allows some individuals to have a wider range of tolerance to environmental changes, acting as a buffer against disturbances. ecology genetics
How do tolerant genes affect populations? Tolerant genes can be passed on to offspring, enabling the population to evolve and adapt to new environmental conditions. evolution genetics
What are periodic events in ecosystems? Periodic events are regular occurrences like rainy or dry seasons that can disturb ecosystems. ecology events
What are episodic events? Episodic events are irregular but recurring disturbances, such as hurricanes and forest fires, that occur under certain conditions. ecology events
What are random events in ecosystems? Random events occur unpredictably, like asteroid strikes or volcanic eruptions, disrupting ecosystems without any pattern. ecology events
What causes gradual climate change over time? Gradual climate change is caused by changes in Earth's orbit around the Sun, including eccentricity, axial precession, and obliquity. change climate
What are Milankovitch Cycles? Milankovitch Cycles are variations in Earth's orbit that influence climate changes over tens of thousands of years. climate cycles
How does Earth's orbit affect climate? Earth's orbit can bring it closer or further from the Sun, impacting temperature and climate over time. climate orbit
What is the effect of warmer climate on sea level? During warmer climate periods, sea level rises due to melting ice sheets and thermal expansion of ocean water. climate sea_level
What is the relationship between temperature and sea level over 400,000 years? Data shows a clear link where higher global temperatures correlate with rising sea levels over the last 400,000 years. climate data
What causes the rise in sea level? Melting of glacial and polar ice sheets and thermal expansion of ocean water. climate sea_level
What happens to low-lying coastal ecosystems during high sea levels? They may be completely flooded and could disappear. coastal ecosystems
How does increased water depth affect coral reef ecosystems? Shallow waters may become deeper, preventing sunlight from reaching the bottom. coral ecosystems
What is a key factor in species adaptation? Genetic diversity allows for a range of traits within a population. adaptation genetics
What adaptation did early Homo habilis develop? A new thumb muscle arrangement for a tighter grip. adaptation homo_habilis
What advantage did opposable thumbs provide to Homo habilis? The ability to create and wield more efficient stone tools. homo_habilis tools
What did access to bone marrow provide early hominids? A huge energetic advantage over similar primates. adaptation energy
What are the two types of ecological succession? Primary succession and secondary succession. ecology succession
What do pioneer species do in primary succession? They colonize bare rock ecosystems. pioneer_species primary_succession
How do pioneer species like moss and lichen grow on bare rock? They secrete acids that release nutrients through chemical weathering. chemical_weathering ecosystems
What is an adaptation? A genetic mutation that increases an organism's likelihood of survival and reproduction. adaptation genetics
What environmental change did early hominids adapt to? Moving out of dense forests into grasslands. environment hominids
What advantage did Homo erectus gain from standing upright? It allowed them to survey their environment. adaptation homo_erectus
What is a keystone species? A species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance. ecology keystone_species
What process do moss and lichen use to secrete acids for nutrient extraction? Chemical weathering ecology weathering
What do moss and lichen lead to the formation of? Shallow rocky soil ecology soil
What type of species colonize the area after moss and lichen? Pioneer species like grass, wildflowers, and shrubs ecology pioneer_species
What do early successional plants add to the soil? Organic matter and depth ecology succession
What type of trees are classified as intermediate successional species? Shade intolerant fast-growing trees ecology trees
What replaces intermediate successional trees over time? Slower growing shade tolerant species like Oak and Maple ecology trees
What is a climax community? A community that has progressed through stages of succession climax_community ecology
What characterizes ecosystems in a climax community? Large amounts of biomass and high species richness biodiversity ecology
What is secondary succession? A progression of changes with soil already present ecology succession
What typically triggers secondary succession? A disturbance that clears existing vegetation disturbance ecology
What are examples of disturbances that can lead to secondary succession? Forest fire, glacial retreat, or abandoned agricultural fields disturbance ecology
What type of pioneer species colonize disturbed soil in secondary succession? Fast growing and sun tolerant species ecology pioneer_species
What is a keystone species? A species vital to ecosystem function whose removal can collapse the ecosystem ecology keystone_species
What happens if a keystone species like wolves is removed? Deer overpopulate, leading to overgrazing and ecosystem collapse ecology keystone_species
What are ecosystem engineers? Species that shape landscapes to create habitats ecology ecosystem_engineers
What is an example of an ecosystem engineer? Beavers and mangroves ecology ecosystem_engineers
What role do beaver dams play in ecosystems? They create habitats that couldn't exist without them beavers ecology
What is the significance of mangrove trees? Their stilt-like roots stabilize coastal ecosystems ecology mangroves
What is the focus of Unit 3 in the review packet? Unit 3 covers populations from both human and natural ecosystem standpoints. ecology population
What is the difference between generalist and specialist species? Specialist species have narrow niches; generalist species have wide tolerance for food and habitat. ecology species
Give an example of a specialist species. Pandas are a specialist species due to their reliance on bamboo. ecology specialist species
Give an example of a generalist species. Raccoons are a generalist species; they can eat a variety of foods and adapt to different habitats. ecology generalist species
What advantage do generalist species have in changing ecosystems? They can switch to different food or habitat sources if their preferred ones are disrupted. adaptation ecology species
In what type of ecosystem are specialist species more advantaged? Specialist species are advantaged in stable ecosystems. ecology species stability
What are the two reproductive strategies of organisms? The two strategies are quantity over quality (R strategists) and quality over quantity (K strategists). ecology reproduction
What characterizes R strategists? R strategists produce many offspring with little parental care and reach sexual maturity early. ecology r-strategists reproduction
What characterizes K strategists? K strategists have few offspring, invest energy in their care, and reach sexual maturity later. ecology k-strategists reproduction
What does the letter R represent in the context of R strategists? The letter R represents exponential growth in math. ecology growth r-strategists
What does the letter K represent in the context of K strategists? The letter K represents carrying capacity. ecology growth k-strategists
What are R-selected species known for? R-selected species produce a large number of offspring and provide little to no parental care. ecology r-selected
What characterizes K-selected species? K-selected species invest in parental care and produce fewer offspring, ensuring higher survival rates. ecology k-selected
In what type of ecosystem do K strategists have an advantage? K strategists thrive in ecosystems with high competition and limited resources. ecology k-strategists
When do R strategists have an advantage? R strategists benefit in ecosystems with abundant resources and low competition. ecology r-strategists
What is biotic potential in R-selected species? R-selected species have high biotic potential, allowing rapid reproduction rates. biological ecology
How do R-selected species affect ecosystems? They are more likely to become invasive species due to rapid reproduction. ecology invasive_species
What is survivorship in ecology? Survivorship is the percentage of a population surviving at any point in its lifespan. ecology survivorship
What is Type I survivorship? Type I survivorship is characterized by high parental care and high survival rates in early life, common in K-selected species. ecology survivorship_types
What defines Type III survivorship? Type III survivorship has low survival rates for offspring, typical of R-selected species with little parental care. ecology survivorship_types
Describe Type II survivorship. Type II survivorship shows a consistent mortality rate throughout the lifespan, seen in some K-selected species. ecology survivorship_types
What is carrying capacity? Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals an ecosystem can support. carrying_capacity ecology
What are limiting resources? Limiting resources are essential resources like food, water, and shelter that restrict population sizes. ecology limiting_resources
What happens during overshoot and die-off cycles? Population exceeds carrying capacity, leading to resource depletion and subsequent die-off. ecology population_dynamics
What is the cycle called when organisms starve due to lack of resources? Overshoot and die off (or dieback). ecology overshoot population
What can severe die-off lead to in ecosystems? Degradation of plant communities and soil nutrients, decreasing carrying capacity. carrying_capacity die-off ecology
What are density dependent factors? Factors that limit population growth based on population density, like competition and disease. density_dependent ecology population
What are density independent factors? Factors that impact populations regardless of density, like tsunamis or forest fires. density_independent ecology population
What can limit the carrying capacity for seabird populations? The number of available nest sites. carrying_capacity ecology seabirds
What limits the carrying capacity for mountain lions? The total territory needed for hunting. carrying_capacity ecology mountain_lions
What type of distribution do seabirds typically exhibit? Uniform distribution. distribution ecology population
What limits tree populations? Nitrogen, phosphorus in soil, and canopy space for sunlight. carrying_capacity ecology trees
What type of distribution do trees typically exhibit? Random distribution. distribution ecology population
What type of distribution do species relying on group protection exhibit? Clumped distribution. distribution ecology population
What happens when conditions for growth are perfect? Exponential growth occurs, forming a j-shaped curve. ecology exponential growth
What is the more realistic model of population growth? The logistic growth model. ecology growth logistic
What are age structure diagrams used for? To visualize the proportion of a country's population in each age cohort. age_structure demography population
What are the three basic groups in age structure diagrams? Pre-reproductive, reproductive, and post-reproductive age cohorts. age_structure demography population
What age range defines the pre-reproductive age cohort? Ages 0 to 14. age_structure demography pre-reproductive
What are the three basic groups in age structure diagrams? 1. Pre-reproductive age cohort (0-14) 2. Reproductive age cohort (15-44) 3. Post-reproductive age cohort (45 and up) age_structure demography
What mistake do students often make regarding age structure diagrams? Students often memorize shapes without understanding the meaning of different age cohort sizes. common_mistakes education
What does a larger pre-reproductive cohort indicate about a country's birth rate? It indicates a high birth rate and likely a high growth rate. birth_rate population_growth
What does a slightly larger pre-reproductive cohort compared to reproductive cohort indicate? It indicates that the country is still growing but the growth rate is slowing down. demography growth_rate
What does equal pre-reproductive and reproductive cohorts indicate? It indicates a very slow population growth rate and nearing a stable population size. demography population_stability
What happens to growth rates in highly developed economies? Growth rates can slow down so much that they become negative due to low birth rates. birth_rate economic_development
What is Total Fertility Rate (TFR)? TFR is the average number of children a woman will give birth to in her lifetime. demography fertility
What factors influence Total Fertility Rate (TFR)? The average age of a woman at her first child and economic, social, and cultural factors. fertility social_factors
How does industrialization affect birth rates? In agrarian societies, more children mean more labor and income, influencing higher birth rates. birth_rate industrialization
What limits women's ability to plan their childbirth in developing countries? Lack of education and knowledge about reproductive health and family planning. education reproductive_health
What limits women's financial independence in developing nations? Cultural and religious values favoring large families limit women's ability to make decisions about childbearing. demography family women
Why do women in developing nations have large families? Women and families may choose larger families for economic, religious, or cultural reasons. culture demography family
What factors explain lower TFR in developed nations? Economic development leads to better healthcare and education, reducing the necessity of large families. demography development tfr
How does education affect TFR? More years in school for women correlates with delayed childbirth and lower TFR. education tfr women
What family planning resources are more accessible in developed nations? Contraceptives like oral birth control and condoms are more accessible, influencing family size. contraceptives demography family_planning
How might governments intervene to lower TFR? Governments may conduct public education campaigns or offer economic opportunities to delay childbirth. government intervention tfr
What is the crude birth rate (CBR)? The number of births per 1,000 people in a population. birth_rate cbr demography
What is the crude death rate (CDR)? The number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population. cdr death_rate demography
How do you calculate the percent growth rate of a population? Subtract CDR from CBR and divide by 10 to convert from per 1,000 to percent. calculation demography growth_rate
What was the global population growth rate in 2019? The global population growth rate was 1.37%. 2019 demography growth_rate
What is the rule of 70 in population studies? To find doubling time, divide 70 by the growth rate as a percentage. demography doubling_time rule_of_70
How long will it take for Earth's human population to double at 1.37% growth? It will take about 67.5 years for the population to double. doubling_time growth_rate population
What is carrying capacity? The maximum population size that an environment can sustain indefinitely. carrying_capacity demography population
What would Thomas Malthus say about Earth's population doubling? He would argue that Earth's population will reach carrying capacity and face massive consequences. demography malthus population
What did Thomas Malthus predict in 1978 about Earth's population? He predicted that Earth's population would reach carrying capacity and experience a massive dieback due to famine. famine malthus population
What is the basis of Malthusian theory? It is based on the exponential growth of Earth's population and linear growth of food supply. food malthus population theory
What technological advances did Malthus not account for? Advancements like synthetic fertilizers and pesticides that increased food supply. agriculture food technology
What is a key demographic characteristic influencing population growth? Access to clean drinking water. demographics population water
How does lack of clean drinking water affect infant mortality rates? It leads to high infant mortality rates due to waterborne diseases. health infant_mortality water
What is total fertility rate (TFR)? It is the total number of children born in a country. demographics fertility tfr
What is replacement level fertility? It is the average number of children a woman needs to have for stable population. fertility population replacement
What is the replacement level fertility in developed nations? Close to 2.1 children per woman. developed_nations fertility population
What is GDP? Gross Domestic Product; total market value of all finished goods and services produced by a country. economics gdp wealth
What does a higher GDP indicate about a country? It indicates a more productive economy and typically better healthcare and education. development economics gdp
What is the theory of demographic transition? Countries undergo industrialization leading to falling death rates, rapid population growth, and eventually falling birth rates. demographics population transition
How many stages are there in the demographic transition model? There are five stages, but the focus is typically on the first four stages in APES. demographics stages transition
What characterizes Phase One of demographic transition? Countries are pre-industrialized, relying on agriculture with high birth and death rates. demographics phase_one population
What is the economic structure in Phase Two of demographic transition? Countries are industrializing, transitioning from agrarian to manufacturing and service-based economies. demographics economy phase_two
What characterizes stage two countries? Industrializing or transitioning from agrarian to manufacturing and service economies; considered developing countries. development economy
What is the population growth trend in stage two countries? High population growth due to a dramatic fall in death rate. growth population
What factors contribute to high birth rates in stage two countries? Cultural momentum, lack of educational opportunities for women, and limited access to contraceptives. birth_rate culture
What defines stage three countries? Industrialization is complete; often called developed or industrialized countries. development economy
What happens to the population growth rate in stage three countries? Slows as birth rate declines closer to death rate. growth population
What educational trends are seen in stage three countries? Increased educational and career opportunities for women; both genders spend longer in school. career education
What is the total fertility rate (TFR) trend in stage three countries? Approaching replacement level of 2.1. demographics fertility
What characterizes stage four countries? Highly developed or post-industrial with high access to education and family planning. development economy
What is the TFR trend in stage four countries? Well below replacement level, potentially leading to negative population growth. fertility population_decline
How can you identify stage four countries in age structure diagrams? The pre-reproductive age cohort is smaller than the reproductive age cohort. age_structure demographics
What should students remember to do for unit three? Print out and fill out the ultimate review packet, especially for population growth rate and rule of 70 problems. review study
What effect does low pH have on soil? Low pH or acidic soil makes it less fertile. fertility soil
What is the primary component of Earth's atmosphere? Nitrogen, at around 78%. atmosphere composition
What happens to nitrogen in the atmosphere? Nitrogen exists as gas molecules that are not biologically available until nitrogen fixation occurs. atmosphere nitrogen
What is the second most abundant gas in the atmosphere? Oxygen, just under 21%. atmosphere composition
What is the focus of Unit 4 in the APES ultimate review? Unit 4 focuses on earth science, including plate tectonics, watersheds, and soil formation. apes earth_science unit_4
What are tectonic plates? Tectonic plates are huge slabs of rock or lithosphere floating on top of molten magma in the mantle. geology tectonic_plates
Why is the mantle liquid? The mantle is liquid due to heat from the Earth's core, which is a dense ball of nickel, iron, and radioactive elements. earth's_core geology mantle
What is a divergent boundary? A divergent boundary occurs where tectonic plates move away from each other, often causing seafloor spreading. divergent_boundary plate_tectonics
What geological features result from divergent boundaries? Divergent boundaries can create mid-ocean features like trenches and underwater ridges. divergent_boundary geological_features
What happens at a convergent boundary? At a convergent boundary, two plates collide, and the denser oceanic plate is subducted beneath the continental plate. convergent_boundary plate_tectonics
What geological formations can occur due to convergent boundaries? Convergent boundaries can form volcanic mountain ranges and trenches. convergent_boundary trenches volcanic_mountains
What are transform plate boundaries? Transform plate boundaries occur where two plates slide past each other in opposite directions. earthquakes transform_boundary
What causes earthquakes at transform boundaries? Earthquakes occur when locked plates at transform boundaries finally slide past each other, releasing energy. earthquakes transform_boundary
What is soil? Soil is a complex mixture of tiny weathered rock particles (sand, silt, clay) and organic matter. geology soil
How is soil different from dirt? Soil is a valuable ecosystem component, while dirt is often considered just displaced soil. dirt ecology soil
What is pore space in soil? Pore space refers to the empty spaces in soil that allow oxygen and water to fill the soil, providing access for plant roots. pore_space soil
What are the components of soil? Soil consists of living microbes, decomposers, decomposing leaves, animal waste, and inorganic materials from weathered rocks. components soil
What is parent material in soil? Parent material refers to the rocks that soil pieces originate from, which undergo weathering over time. parent_material soil
What is the O Horizon in soil? The O Horizon is the top layer of soil filled with organic matter, including decomposers and partially decomposed biomass. o_horizon soil
What is the A Horizon also known as? The A Horizon is also referred to as topsoil, containing organic matter and minerals crucial for plant growth. a_horizon soil
What is the B Horizon in soil? The B Horizon, or subsoil, contains little organic material but holds essential nutrients for plants. b_horizon soil
What does the C Horizon contain? The C Horizon contains rocks of the parent material that have undergone minimal weathering due to their depth. c_horizon soil
What is the difference between weathering and erosion? Weathering is the breakdown of rocks, while erosion is the movement of rock pieces by wind and rain. erosion soil weathering
How does erosion affect soil? Erosion can degrade soil by removing topsoil, which contains vital nutrients and microorganisms for plant growth. erosion soil
What role does soil play in groundwater filtration? Soil filters pollutants from rainwater, allowing clean water to recharge aquifers and groundwater sources. filtration groundwater soil
What is soil texture? Soil texture refers to the percentage of sand, silt, and clay in the soil, influencing its characteristics. soil texture
Which soil particle is the largest? Sand is the largest particle among sand, silt, and clay. particles soil
What effect does sand have on soil drainage? Soil with more sand has larger pores, allowing water to drain through more easily. drainage sand soil
Which soil particle is the smallest? Clay is the smallest particle among sand, silt, and clay. clay particles soil
What type of soil has larger pores? Soil with more sand properties soil
What is the ease with which water can move through soil called? Permeability soil water
What is the opposite of permeability? Water holding capacity properties soil
What is the Goldilocks level of permeability for plants? Intermediate permeability that allows enough water without drowning roots plants soil
How can you measure a soil's texture? By measuring the percentage of sand, silt, and clay measurement soil
What happens when you set a soil sample in a jar of water overnight? It separates by density properties soil
What pH level indicates more acidity in soil? Lower pH level chemistry soil
What does lower soil pH lead to regarding nutrient levels? Lower nutrient levels due to leaching nutrients soil
How does acidic soil affect plant roots? It makes toxic metals like aluminum more soluble plants soil
Which two nutrients are critical for plant growth? Nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients soil
What determines a soil's fertility? Combination of chemical and physical properties fertility soil
What determines a soil's fertility? Soil's fertility is determined by factors such as nutrient levels and pH. fertility soil
What effect does high nutrients have on soil? High nutrients make soil more fertile. fertility soil
What is the role of greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide? They can dramatically alter Earth's climate by trapping heat. climate greenhouse_gases
What is the troposphere? The layer closest to Earth where weather occurs and air is breathed. atmosphere troposphere
How can you remember the troposphere? The prefix 'tropo' means change, relating to changing weather. atmosphere troposphere
What is the stratosphere known for? It saves us from the Sun due to ozone molecules that absorb UV rays. atmosphere stratosphere
What is the key characteristic of the mesosphere? Gas molecules become less dense as altitude increases. atmosphere mesosphere
Why is the thermosphere the hottest layer? It receives the most direct solar radiation. atmosphere thermosphere
What phenomenon occurs in the thermosphere? The aurora Borealis or Northern Lights occur here. atmosphere aurora
What is the exosphere? The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere merging with outer space. atmosphere exosphere
What trend is observed in gas density in the atmosphere? Gas density decreases with each successive atmospheric layer. atmosphere density
What is the temperature-altitude relationship in the troposphere? It gets colder as altitude increases. atmosphere temperature
How can you figure out the temperature gradient of higher layers? Reverse the temperature-altitude relationship of the layer below. atmosphere temperature
What do we review after covering the layers of the atmosphere? Global wind patterns in the troposphere. atmosphere wind_patterns
What is the first key property of air? Warm air holds more moisture than cold air. air_properties atmosphere
What happens to warm air? Warm air rises. air_properties atmosphere
What occurs as air rises? It experiences less pressure and cools. air_properties atmosphere
What happens to water vapor in cooling air? It condenses. air_properties atmosphere
What is the circulation of air called at the equator? The Hadley cell. atmosphere hadley_cell
Why is air at the equator warmer? Because the sun's rays strike most directly there. atmosphere equator
What happens to moisture in rising warm air? It condenses and falls as rain. atmosphere precipitation
Where does air sink back down to Earth? Around 30° north and south. air_circulation atmosphere
What conditions are experienced at 30° north and south? Very dry high pressure conditions. atmosphere climate
What leads to the formation of Earth's deserts? The Hadley cell's dry air sinking at 30° north and south. atmosphere deserts
How does air move from high pressure to low pressure? Air sinks at 30° and flows back towards the equator. air_movement atmosphere
What is the effect of Earth's rotation on air movement? Air is deflected from east to west due to Earth's spin. atmosphere coriolis_effect
What are the winds called that result from air moving towards the equator? The Eastern trade winds. atmosphere trade_winds
Why do wind directions change from 30° to 60°? Different surface rotation speeds of Earth at different latitudes. atmosphere wind_patterns
What is a watershed? An area of land that drains into one central body of water. hydrology watersheds
How can a watershed be visualized? As a giant land funnel. hydrology watersheds
What characteristic separates one watershed from another? Slope. hydrology watersheds
What is the importance of slope in a watershed? It separates one watershed from another and affects water runoff and infiltration. slope watershed
How does slope affect precipitation in a watershed? Steeper slopes reduce infiltration into soil and increase surface runoff. precipitation slope
What role does vegetation play in water quality within a watershed? More vegetation increases groundwater infiltration and filters pollutants. vegetation water_quality
How does land use impact water movement in a watershed? Urban areas with impermeable surfaces increase runoff and pollution. land_use water_movement
What is insolation? The amount of solar radiation received by an area on Earth, measured in Watts per meter squared. insolation solar_radiation
Why does insolation vary across Earth's surface? Due to the curvature of Earth's surface and the angle of the sun's rays. earth's_surface insolation
How does Earth's tilt affect the seasons? Earth's tilt of about 23.5° causes one hemisphere to be tilted closer to the Sun, creating summer, while the other experiences winter. earth's_tilt seasons
When does summer begin in the northern hemisphere? Summer begins on the summer solstice, June 21st. northern_hemisphere summer
What happens to the northern hemisphere on the summer solstice? It is tilted maximally towards the Sun, receiving more direct sunlight. northern_hemisphere summer_solstice
When does summer begin in the northern hemisphere? Summer begins on the summer solstice, June 21st. seasons solstice
What causes summer to be warmer in the northern hemisphere? The northern hemisphere is tilted maximally towards the Sun, receiving more direct solar radiation. seasons solar
What is the longest day of the year in the northern hemisphere? June 21st is the longest day of the year in the northern hemisphere. daylength seasons
What is the shortest day of the year in the southern hemisphere? June 21st is the shortest day of the year in the southern hemisphere. daylength seasons
At what latitude do the sun's rays hit most directly on June 21st? 23.5° north latitude, known as the Tropic of Cancer. geography latitude
When does the September equinox occur? The September equinox occurs anywhere from September 21st to 24th. equinox seasons
What happens during the September equinox? Both hemispheres are equally exposed to the sun, resulting in roughly equal day length. equinox seasons
What is the December solstice? The December solstice occurs on December 21st and marks winter in the northern hemisphere and summer in the southern hemisphere. seasons solstice
What latitude receives the most direct insulation during the December solstice? 23.5° south latitude, known as the Tropic of Capricorn. geography latitude
When does the spring equinox occur in the northern hemisphere? The spring equinox occurs on March 20 or 21st. equinox seasons
What is the effect of proximity to a large body of water on climate? It can alter temperature and precipitation patterns in a region. climate geography
What happens to prevailing winds moving across a body of water? They carry moisture picked up from the water, resulting in precipitation when they move over land. meteorology precipitation
What is a snow belt? Areas near the Great Lakes that receive high amounts of snowfall due to prevailing winds picking up moisture. climate snow
What is lake effect snow? Snow that occurs when prevailing winds pick up moisture from a lake and deposit it as precipitation on land. climate snow
How does air temperature affect moisture retention? When air cools, it can't hold as much moisture, leading to condensation and precipitation. meteorology temperature
What happens to snowfall as you move from west to east in Michigan? Snowfall tapers off because the air mass has less moisture after snowing on the western portion. climate snow
How does a mountain range affect precipitation patterns? It can create patterns of high precipitation along the coast and less precipitation further inland. geography precipitation
What is the effect of introducing a mountain range to precipitation patterns? It increases the contrast between high precipitation on the windward side and low precipitation on the leeward side. geography precipitation
What happens to air as it rises on the windward side of a mountain? The air cools, causing moisture to condense and fall as precipitation. meteorology mountains
What type of environment does the windward side of a mountain typically support? Lush, thriving forests due to high rainfall. ecology forests
What are the conditions like on the leeward side of a mountain? It is much drier, often leading to desert formation. deserts geography
What is the term for the precipitation pattern along mountain ranges? The rain shadow effect. meteorology rainshadow
Which mountain range in California exemplifies the rain shadow effect? The Sierra Nevada mountain range. california geography
What are two examples of deserts formed on the leeward side of a mountain range? Mojave Desert and Death Valley. deserts geography
What ocean phenomenon is discussed in topic 4.9? El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). enso oceanography
Where does the El Niño Southern Oscillation occur? In the tropical or equatorial Pacific Ocean. enso oceanography
What does the term 'El Niño' refer to in the oscillation? It refers to warm ocean conditions. elnino oceanography
What does 'La Niña' refer to in the oscillation? It refers to cold ocean conditions. lanina oceanography
What normally happens in the equatorial Pacific regarding ocean circulation? Trade winds blow warm surface waters from east to west. circulation oceanography
What process occurs as warm surface waters are blown away from the Americas? Upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich waters to the surface. oceanography upwelling
What is the thermocline? The balance between warm surface waters and colder deeper waters. oceanography thermocline
How does the thermocline tilt under normal conditions? From east to west, with cold water rising in the east. oceanography thermocline
What happens to trade winds during an El Niño year? They weaken and may even reverse directions. elnino oceanography
What occurs to warm surface waters during an El Niño event? They pool up along the coast of South America. elnino oceanography
What is the impact of an El Niño event on South America? It flips normal weather patterns, causing changes in precipitation. elnino oceanography
What happens to weather patterns in South America during this phenomenon? South America experiences warmer weather, low pressure systems, and higher than average rainfall. south_america weather
What negative impacts can result from the weather changes in South America? Flooding and landslides can occur due to higher rainfall. flooding landslides
How do the weather changes affect fisheries in South America? Warmer water and a lack of oxygen and nutrients suppress upwelling, harming fisheries. fisheries upwelling
What effect does the phenomenon have on the thermocline in South America? It results in a flattening or leveling of the thermocline, keeping warmer surface waters near the top. oceanography thermocline
What weather conditions are experienced in Southeast Asia and Australia during this phenomenon? They experience colder, drier than average weather, leading to drought-like conditions. australia southeast_asia weather
What happens to the Eastern Trade Winds during this phenomenon? The Eastern Trade Winds are reestablished and intensified, moving warm surface water to the west. ocean_currents trade_winds
What positive effect do stronger trade winds have on South America's coast? They create stronger upwelling, leading to a steeper thermocline and more cold deep ocean water. thermocline upwelling
What benefits does the upwelling provide for fisheries in South America? It brings up cold deep ocean water rich in oxygen and nutrients, supporting fisheries. fisheries ocean_nutrients
How does the phenomenon impact coastal regions in South America? Coastal regions can experience colder and drier conditions than normal, causing droughts. coastal_regions droughts
What is the overall impact of the weather changes on the hemisphere's temperatures? The changes lead to generally warmer temperatures in the hemisphere. hemisphere temperatures
What is the 'tragedy of the Commons'? A common resource available for all humans, often exploited unsustainably for profit. environment tragedy_of_the_commons
What are examples of common resources? Ocean, atmosphere, rangelands. environment resources
What is a consequence of overfishing? Depleted fishing populations and damaged ocean floor. ocean overfishing
What causes oxygen-depleted dead zones in oceans? Fertilizer use leading to nutrient runoff, e.g., near Louisiana. dead_zones pollution
What is groundwater depletion? Taking more water from aquifers than is available, often without regulation. depletion groundwater
Where is the Ogallala Aquifer located? In the middle of the United States, from Texas through the Midwest. geography ogallala_aquifer
What percentage of Earth's water is accessible as freshwater? Only a small percentage is accessible as freshwater. freshwater resources
What are confined and unconfined aquifers? Confined aquifers are under pressure; unconfined aquifers are at atmospheric pressure. aquifers water
What is subsidence in relation to aquifers? Land sinking due to overdraft of aquifers. groundwater subsidence
What is saltwater intrusion? Saltwater mixing with freshwater in an aquifer near a coastline. aquifers saltwater_intrusion
What percentage of freshwater is used for irrigation? About 70% of available freshwater is used for agriculture and irrigation. irrigation water_usage
Which irrigation method causes the most evaporation? Furrow irrigation, causing about 40% evaporation. evaporation irrigation
What is flood irrigation? Flooding a field with water, causing significant evaporation. flood_irrigation water_usage
What is spray irrigation similar to? Watering a lawn by spraying water over it. irrigation spray
What is drip irrigation? A method using a line with holes that slowly drips water. drip irrigation
What is the advantage of drip irrigation? It minimizes evaporation and reduces salinization complications. irrigation salinization
What is salinization? The accumulation of salts in soil, affecting plant growth. agriculture salinization
What is a method to fix salinization? Flushing the soil with more water. fixing salinization
What is a problem associated with tillage? Erosion of topsoil. erosion tillage
What does tillage do to soil? It aerates the soil but can lead to loss of topsoil. soil tillage
Why is topsoil important? It holds nutrients and water essential for plant growth. nutrients topsoil
What can help prevent soil erosion? Using cover crops to hold soil in place. cover_crops erosion
What is desertification? The loss of soil nutrients, making it unable to support plant life. desertification soil
What causes desertification? Overgrazing on rangelands and nutrient depletion. desertification overgrazing
What is integrated pest management? A strategy to reduce pesticide use through crop rotation and natural predators. pest_management pesticides
What is an example of a natural predator in pest management? Ladybugs, which eat aphids. ladybugs pest_management
What are genetically modified organisms (GMOs)? Organisms altered to be more resistant to pests. gmos pests
What is ore? Rock that contains a profitable amount of minerals. mining ore
What are reserves in mining? Sources of minerals known to be available for extraction. mining reserves
What does depletion time for reserves refer to? The period when approximately 80% of reserves are used up. depletion mining
What is overburden in mining? The soil removed during the mining process. mining overburden
What is overburden in mining? Overburden is the soil removed during mining operations. mining overburden
What is spoils in the context of mining? Spoils are the waste created and left behind after processing mined materials. mining waste
What are tailings? Tailings refer to the mining residue from water used during mining processes. mining residue
What are some impacts of mining on land? Mining disrupts land and habitats, often leaving it bare and without vegetation. environment mining
What can happen to water quality due to mining? Loose dirt from mining can erode and wash into waterways, affecting aquatic health. mining water_quality
What is erosion in the context of mining? Erosion is the movement of soil due to wind or water, which can lead to loss of fertility. erosion mining
What is bycatch in fishing? Bycatch refers to unintended organisms caught in fishing nets, such as juvenile fish or marine mammals. bycatch fishing
What defines a fishery collapse? A fishery collapse is a decline of over 90% in a known fish population in a region. collapse fishing
What are some issues caused by fishing equipment? Fishing equipment can cause ocean pollution and damage delicate ecosystems like coral reefs. fishing pollution
What are some solutions to fishery collapse? Solutions include laws and regulations, community-based management, and creating marine reserves. fishing solutions
How can consumer choice impact fishing practices? Choosing not to buy overharvested fish can help reduce pressure on fish populations. consumer_choice fishing
What is one way consumers can help prevent overfishing? Choose not to buy fish that are over harvested. consumer_choice fishing
What is aquaculture? Growing fish in contained tanks or netting areas in the ocean. aquaculture fishing
What is a major problem with high-density aquaculture? Waste contamination issues due to fish waste. aquaculture environment
What risk is associated with disease in aquaculture? Diseases can spread rapidly among closely packed fish. aquaculture disease
What is a drawback of genetically modified fish escaping aquaculture? They can out-compete wild fish in the ecosystem. fishing genetic_modification
What are the benefits of forests in terms of soil? They stabilize soil, prevent erosion, and improve water infiltration. forests soil
How do forests act as carbon sinks? They absorb carbon during photosynthesis and store it in their tissues. carbon_sink forests
What happens to carbon levels when forests are cut down? Carbon is released into the atmosphere. carbon deforestation
What is a consequence of deforestation on water runoff? Increased runoff and sediment transport to waterways. deforestation water
What was the forestry service's approach to wildfires in the U.S.? They tried to suppress fires, which led to woody accumulation. forestry wildfires
What is prescribed burning? Controlled burning of forest areas to prevent larger wildfires. fire_management forestry
What is controlled or prescribed burning? It is when firefighters, ecologists, and foresters burn certain chunks of forests to prevent out-of-control fires later on. ecology fire
What is clear cutting? Clear cutting is the process of cutting down every tree in a forest community, which is effective but extremely destructive. deforestation forestry
What problem does deforestation cause in rainforests? It leads to soil erosion because nothing is holding the soil in place. deforestation soil
What is selective cutting? Selective cutting involves leaving some trees behind to maintain the forest and aid repopulation while only certain trees are cut down. forestry sustainability
What is a tragedy of the Commons issue in rangeland? It occurs when public or federal lands are overgrazed by cattle, damaging the soil and grass. commons rangeland
What are the consequences of overgrazing cattle? It can lead to soil damage, desertification, and nutrient loss. overgrazing soil
What is the impact of cattle waste in rangelands? Cattle waste can lead to eutrophication and further erosion of stream beds. eutrophication waterways
How can we protect streams in rangelands? By fencing streams and supplementing cattle feed to prevent overgrazing. conservation rangeland
What are impervious surfaces? Impervious surfaces do not allow water to seep through, such as concrete and asphalt. urbanization water
What is the effect of urbanization on runoff? It increases runoff into sewer drains and waterways, leading to habitat damage and flooding. runoff urbanization
What is eutrophication? Eutrophication occurs when nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus enter waterways, causing excessive algae growth. eutrophication water
What happens during hypoxia in waterways? Hypoxia occurs when decaying algae consume oxygen, creating dead zones. dead_zones hypoxia
What are concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs)? CAFOs are high-density animal farming operations where animals are kept in confined spaces until slaughter. cafos meat_production
What is a downside of industrialized meat production? It can lead to antibiotic resistance due to the use of antibiotics in confined animal operations. antibiotics meat_production
What generally requires more land, meat or plants? Meat requires way more land than growing plants. agriculture land-use
What problem can arise from using antibiotics in animals? Antibiotic resistance can develop. antibiotics health
Why are antibiotics often necessary in animal farming? Due to high density and disease spread in close quarters. farming health
What is a consequence of concentrated waste from large numbers of animals? It can lead to eutrophication. environment pollution
What ethical issue arises from densely packed animals? The ethical treatment of animals is a concern. animal-rights ethics
What is the main topic of the video? Unit 5 test review. education review
What is the purpose of the video? To help with studying for the test. education study-aid
What is the hoped outcome for viewers of the video? Good luck on the test. education motivation