Simon Keller's "Patriotism as Bad Faith"

Ethics of Patriotism

Introduction to Patriotism

  • Most people regard patriotism as a virtue, often viewed positively in political contexts.

  • Politicians prefer to be labeled cowardly or selfish rather than unpatriotic, suggesting a broad societal appreciation for patriotism.

  • Patriotism may not rank as high as kindness or justice, but it is commonly perceived as a character trait of the ideal person.

Philosophical Perspectives on Patriotism

  • Universalism vs. Communitarianism:

    • Universalism (or liberal universalism) suggests that ethical judgments should be made from an impartial perspective, free from specific allegiances.

    • Communitarianism posits that ethical judgments are tied to memberships in specific communities, emphasizing the importance of tradition and social roles.

  • The debate around patriotism often features three philosophical camps:

    1. Communitarian Patriot:

    • Supported by thinkers like Alasdair MacIntyre, who argues that patriotism is a crucial virtue.

    • A person lacking patriotism is seen as alienated and ethically deficient.

    1. Hard Universalist:

    • Championing an anti-patriotic view, asserting that favoritism is morally abhorrent and that no nation is inherently superior.

    1. Soft Universalist:

    • Offers a balanced view that acknowledges patriotic loyalty's existence while maintaining it is not a requirement for ethical behavior.

    • Suggests that while one may not be obliged to be patriotic, it is permissible to feel so.

Analogies and Loyalties

  • Analogy with Other Forms of Loyalty:

    • Philosophers often compare patriotism to other loyalties (e.g., familial or romantic) to explore moral implications.

  • MacIntyre's Analysis:

    • Suggests that patriotism is akin to other loyalty-based virtues, primarily through a lens of embeddedness in community identity.

  • The Centric Circle Model (Andrew Oldenquist):

    • Represents loyalty in concentric circles, with family at the center and patriotism as a broader loyalty represented further out.

  • The argument highlights that while there may be varying intensities of patriotism, it is fundamentally similar to other loyalties.

Definitions and Aspects of Patriotism

Nature of Patriotism

  • Definition: A patriot expresses love and loyalty toward their country.

  • Variability of Meaning: The term 'patriotism' can encompass a wide range of interpretations and practices across cultures and eras.

Fundamental Principles:

  1. Choice in Loyalty:

    • While some loyalties (e.g., political candidates) are chosen, others (like familial loyalty) are not.

    • Patriotism is not a choice; individuals do not select their countries in the standard case.

  2. Derived vs. Non-Derived Loyalties:

    • Derived loyalties stem from more fundamental ones, while non-derived (first-level) loyalties do not rely on other connections.

    • Patriotism often involves a first-order loyalty where one's love stems from the country being ‘theirs.’

Seriousness and Justification of Loyalties

  • Seriousness:

    • Serious loyalties demand sacrifices and reverence; patriotism typically is seen as a serious loyalty due to its social and moral implications.

  • Justification of Loyalties:

    • Reflections on loyalty often include three types of justifications:

    1. Character-Based Justification: Evaluates the loyalty based on the characteristics deemed valuable by external standards.

    2. Personal Connection Justification: Accounts for individual bonds that justify loyalty through personal histories or experiences.

    3. Unconditional Justification: Recognizes a loyalty that requires no justification beyond the inherent relationship (e.g., parental loyalty).

Patriotism vs. Bad Faith

Concept of Bad Faith

  • Definition of Bad Faith:

    • Sartre defines bad faith as the act of hiding a displeasing truth or misrepresenting a pleasing falsehood.

  • Connection to Patriotism:

    • Patriotism can breed a form of bad faith where individuals ignore evidence that contradicts their beliefs about the country, instead constructing justifications for flawed national characteristics.

Disposition to Bad Faith in Patriots

  • Patriots may interpret evidence through a biased lens to maintain their national reputation, leading them to resist acknowledging negative characteristics of their country.

  • Examples provided emphasize various kinds of evidence (e.g., wartime atrocities, colonialism) that might lead a patriot to question their country but might instead deepen their loyalty through rationalizations.

Implications and Conclusion

  • Philosophical Implications:

    • The close tie between patriotism and bad faith suggests that while patriotism arises from meaningful traditions, it may simultaneously elevate false beliefs about national superiority.

    • This presents an ethical dilemma regarding the virtue status of patriotism.

  • Conclusion:

    • The paper suggests that patriotism is likely a vice, supported by its inclination toward bad faith.

    • Advocacy for critical reassessment of one’s loyalty to country is encouraged, urging a more detached evaluation of national values against global standards of ethics.

Summary

The reading discusses the ethics of patriotism, often considered a virtue in political contexts. It presents three philosophical perspectives: communitarianism, hard universalism, and soft universalism, highlighting the various attitudes toward patriotic loyalty. Communitarian patriots view loyalty to one’s nation as an essential virtue, while hard universalists reject all forms of favoritism based on national identity. The text further explores the concept of loyalty, defining patriotism as a love for one’s country and addressing its implications, including its potential ties to bad faith as described by Sartre. Bad faith refers to the misrepresentation of national characteristics to maintain a favorable image of one’s country, thereby deepening loyalty despite negative evidence. The conclusion suggests that while patriotism can stem from meaningful traditions, it may also represent a vice due to its inclination towards justifying flawed national characteristics, urging a critical reassessment of these loyalties.

Keller distinguishes between two types of dissidents: the 'just plain dissident' and the 'patriotic dissident.'

  • Just Plain Dissident: This type of dissident typically critiques their government or society without an underlying sense of loyalty or love for the homeland. Their dissent is often rooted in a more general critique of injustice or wrongdoing, lacking a patriotic motivation.

  • Patriotic Dissident: In contrast, the patriotic dissident critiques their country out of love and concern for its well-being. This form of dissent is motivated by a desire to improve the nation and hold it accountable to its principles and values, showcasing a commitment to the social and moral fabric of the country.

Keller's distinction highlights the complexity of dissent, emphasizing that critiques can arise from either detached discontent or a deep-seated commitment to the nation’s ideals.

Keller views the patriotic dissident as exhibiting a vice due to the potential for their love and loyalty toward the country to lead to rationalizations of flawed national characteristics. This devotion may cause patriotic dissenters to engage in bad faith, which involves ignoring negative evidence about their country in favor of maintaining a favorable image. Consequently, the patriotic dissident can become blind to the imperfections and injustices present within their nation. By prioritizing loyalty over objective criticism, this form of dissent risks complicity in perpetuating harmful practices or policies that could otherwise be challenged through a more detached critique. Ultimately, Keller suggests that while the patriotic dissident aims to uphold national ideals, their adherence may also result in a failure to hold the nation accountable to those principles, thereby exemplifying a vice rather than a pure virtue.