Early Soil Knowledge and the Birth and Development of Soil Science

Eric C. Brevik
- Departments of Natural Science and Agriculture and Technical Studies, Dickinson State University, Dickinson, ND 58602, United States
Alfred E. Hartemink
- ISRIC-World Soil Information, P.O. Box 353, 6700 AJ Wageningen, The Netherlands

History: Received 9 February 2010; Received in revised form 7 June 2010; Accepted 28 June 2010
Keywords: Soil science, History, Renaissance, Science history, Early civilizations, Soil erosion, Soils knowledge

Soil knowledge dates to the earliest known practice of agriculture about 11,000 years ago (BP).
By the 4th century AD, civilizations worldwide demonstrated various levels of soil knowledge, including irrigation, erosion control, soil fertility enhancement, and creation of artificial soils.
Early understanding of soils was based on observations, not experiments.
Notable scientists involved in soil issues include Francis Bacon, Robert Boyle, Charles Darwin, and Leonardo da Vinci.
Soil science became a distinct scientific discipline in the 19th century, particularly through the work of Vasilii V. Dokuchaev.
By the 20th century, soil science extended beyond agriculture into areas such as residential development, highway planning, and environmental management.

The intimate relationship between humans and soil has persisted throughout history, dating back to pre-agricultural societies where soil was essential for food, fiber, and fuel.
The move to sedentary agriculture highlighted differences in soil properties, influencing cultivation practices.
Soil science as a discipline evolved from basic sciences like geology, biology, physics, and chemistry, establishing itself as a solid science by the late 19th century.
The article's purpose is to document the evolution of soil science from initial human–soil interactions to its current state, summarizing 11,000 years of soil interactions, particularly in ancient civilizations like Egypt, Greece, and Rome.

The Tigris and Euphrates regions in Iraq became the site of advanced Mesopotamian civilizations that recognized soil differences and adjusted cropping patterns accordingly.
Irrigation systems developed under the Sumerians and Babylonians were critical; however, salinization and erosion ultimately contributed to the decline of these civilizations.
The early plow called ard was developed around 6000 to 4000 BC, facilitating more efficient soil preparation.
Biblical references from around 1400 BC highlight the importance of evaluating soil quality for agricultural purposes.
During the Middle Ages, Islamic societies advanced agricultural sciences, inheriting and building upon Greek and Roman agricultural works.

Egyptian civilization (3300 BC to 332 BC) relied on Nile River flooding to sustain soil fertility.
Water-lifting devices invented by Egyptians were crucial in irrigation practices.
The Phoenicians pioneered bench terraces designed to combat soil erosion in steep terrain between 1200-800 BC.
In ancient Greece, philosophers like Xenophon and Aristotle acknowledged the importance of soil, although they lacked experimental validation.
Roman contributions to soil knowledge included the systematic adoption of manure, with Cato advocating for its use around the 3rd century BC.

Neolithic farming communities in Uzbekistan improved soil fertility using sand and manure around 4,000 years ago.
Agricultural practices in India included irrigation systems and crop rotation by the 14th century AD.
In China, early agriculture, particularly rice cultivation, thrived around 9,000 BP, with systematic soil classification initiated by 2nd century BC.

Aztec and Maya civilizations utilized advanced terracing and irrigation techniques, contributing to sustainable agricultural systems.
The Aztecs created a soil classification system based on fertility and other properties, while terra preta (dark earth) soils demonstrated long-term human management.

The 16th century marked the onset of systematic soil studies focusing on plant nutrition. Key contributors included Palissy, Bacon, Van Helmont, and Boyle.
Various theories on plant nutrition arose, including Palissy's salts theory, which held that plant nutrients derived from soil salts.
Van Helmont and Boyle proposed that soil primarily served as a storage medium for water.

Philosophers like Machiavelli argued that soil fertility influenced population distribution and economic vitality.
The 18th century introduced the first soil mapping efforts in Europe for taxation and agricultural planning.

Mikhail Lomonosov, writing in 1763, contributed significantly to soil science by viewing soils as evolved geobiologic bodies formed over extended periods.

Agrogeology emerged but faced competition from agricultural chemistry.
Early U.S. geological surveys integrated soil studies, leading to notable discoveries about soil fertility (e.g., potassium from glauconite).

The “Humus Theory” persisted into the 19th century before being challenged by the Mineral Theory introduced by J. von Liebig.

Significant progress in soil cartography characterized the 19th century, with early soil maps emerging in different countries. Noteworthy maps included Grossul-Tolstoi's and Hilgard's works.

The concept of the soil profile, essential for soil mapping, was advanced by figures like A. Orth and G. Müller in the late 19th century, culminating in Dokuchaev's synthesis of horizons.

Charles Darwin's studies of earthworms laid the groundwork for soil biology, demonstrating their role in soil formation and structure.

Vasilii V. Dokuchaev established genetic soil science, positing it as a distinct scientific field.
He introduced the five soil-forming factors, leading to a framework that influenced soil classifications.

The 20th century saw the establishment of detailed soil mapping initiatives worldwide, influenced by early soil survey foundations.

Soil erosion emerged as a significant concern in the U.S. with the establishment of the Soil Conservation Service in 1935.

Soil science began addressing environmental issues, highlighting the relationship between soils and human health along with other ecological considerations.

Soil science became increasingly internationalized through organizations like the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS), facilitating collaboration and standardization across countries.

Soil science, rooted in ancient knowledge, has matured into a distinct discipline requiring collaboration across various scientific fields.
New challenges and opportunities in sustainable agriculture, environmental security, and human health continue to propel soil science into the future.