History of Ethiopia
HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
Module Writers
Surafel Gelgelo (Ph.D.), Addis Ababa University
Deressa Debu (Ph.D.), Jimma University
Dereje Hinew (Ph.D.), Wollega University
Meseret Worku (M.A.), Debre-Tabor University
Module Reviewers
Kassu Tumiso (M.A.), Arba Minch University
Aychegrew Hadera (Ph.D.), Bahir Dar University
Mohammed Hassen (Ph.D.), Haramaya University
Tsegaye Ebabey (MA), Hawassa University
Ketebo Abdiyo (Ph.D.), Jimma University
Fesseha Berhe (Assistant Professor), Mekelle University
Dessalegn Bizuneh (Assistant Professor), University of Gondar
Module Overview
This teaching material is prepared for students of Higher Learning Institutions to help them understand the history of Ethiopia and the Horn from ancient times to 1995.
The module focuses on major social, cultural, economic, and political developments and their interrelationships.
It considers the chronology and thematic relations of events in time and space and includes regional histories.
Unit 1: Introduction
Defines history, its importance, study methods, and introduces the region.
Objectives
Differentiate between past and history.
Distinguish between popular and professional conceptions of history.
Identify historical sources.
Explain historical study methods.
Discern continuity and change.
Explain the uses of history.
Avoid judging the past by present-day norms.
Explain the evolution of historical writing.
Discuss the role of geography in human history.
Key Concepts
History: A systematic study and organized knowledge of the past; finding patterns and establishing meaning through the rigorous study of surviving records.
Historiography: The history of history; explores changes in historical interpretations through time.
Geography's Role: Interconnectedness of the social, economic, cultural, and political history due to interactions within the region.
Periodization: Dividing history into ancient, medieval, and modern periods based on significant developments.
Nature of History
Originates from the Greek word "Istoria," meaning inquiry.
Distinguishes between events that occurred and historian's accounts.
Academically, history is an organized and systematic study of the past.
Focus is on human society's interaction with the natural environment, differing from other disciplines by studying this interaction in the past.
Uses of History
Helps better understand the present by examining past behaviors and actions.
Provides a sense of identity by understanding our place in the world.
Offers a basic background for other disciplines such as literature, art, and philosophy.
Teaches critical skills including research, evaluation, argument construction, and clear writing.
Develops tolerance and open-mindedness by studying diverse societies.
Supplies endless sources of fascination and provides another perspective on human life and society.
Sources & Methods
Sources are key to the study and writing of history.
Primary Sources: Original, first-hand accounts (manuscripts, diaries, letters, artifacts).
Secondary Sources: Second-hand published accounts interpreting past events based on primary sources (articles, books).
Oral Data: Valuable for non-literate societies, including oral traditions and oral history, subject to critical evaluation.
Historiography of Ethiopia & The Horn
Earliest known reference: Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (1st century A.D.).
Christian Topography by Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century A.D.).
Earliest written Ethiopian material: 7th-century document in Abba Gerima monastery.
Hagiographies: Originating from Ethiopian Orthodox Church, written in Ge'ez.
Chronicles: Indigenous tradition of history writing, incorporating legends and facts.
Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors: al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta.
Futuh al Habesha: Composed by Shihab ad-Din, recording conflict between Christian kingdom and Muslim principalities.
Abba Bahrey’s Geez script on the Oromo in 1593.
Contribution of European missionaries and travelers.
Hiob Ludolf: Founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe.
Transformation in historical writing in the early twentieth century.
Professionalization of history with the opening of the Department of History in 1963 at Haile Selassie I University.
Geographical Context
The region includes Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.
Characterized by mountains, the Great Rift Valley, lowlands, semi-deserts, deserts, and tropical forests.
People are diverse in language, religion, and economic activities but interconnected throughout history.
History shaped by commerce, migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, and state systems.
Spatial location between the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and Indian Ocean links Northeast Africa to other regions.
Impact of drainage systems (Nile, Gibe/Omo–Gojeb, Genale/Jubba-Shebele, Awash, Rift Valley Lakes) on movement and exchange.
Three major environmental zones: Eastern lowland, Highland massif, Western lowland.
Unit 2: Peoples and Cultures in Ethiopia and the Horn
This region is the cradle of humankind and early civilizations.
Early civilizations including food production, making tools and religious practices occurred here.
These developments contributed to the social evolutions, economic formations, and socio-cultural and political settings.
Home to diverse peoples, cultures and economic activities.
Objectives
Evaluate evidence related to Ethiopia and the Horn as the cradle of mankind.
Explain Ethiopia and the Horn in relation to Neolithic Revolution.
Identify the peoples and languages of Ethiopia and the Horn.
Elucidate settlement patterns and economic formations of the region.
Discuss religion and religious processes.
Human Evolution
East African Rift Valley: Cradle of humanity.
Fossil discoveries: Chororapithecus, Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba, Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy), Australopithecus garhi, and Homo genus.
(Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.)
Genus Homo developments: brain development, tool usage.
Cultural evolution: Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age.
Stone tools: Olduwan, Acheulean, Sangoon, and their characteristics.
Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods.
Neolithic Revolution
Shift from mobile to sedentary life.
Domestication of plants and animals.
Cultivation of Teff, dagussa, nug, enset, etc.
Polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones in Emba-Fakeda and other sites.
Languages & Linguistic Processes
About 90 languages with 200 dialects.
Afro-Asiatic: Cushitic (Beja, Agaw, Afar, Oromo, Somali), Semitic (Ge'ez, Tigre, Tigrigna, Amharic, Gurage), Omotic.
Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kunama, Nara, Nu’er.
Linguistic processes: population movements, warfare, trade, religious and territorial expansion, urbanization.
Settlement Patterns
Distribution of peoples across the landscape shaped by historical processes.
Environmental, socio-economic, and political processes reshaped spatial distribution.
Cushitic and Semitic peoples dispersed from the area between the Red Sea and Blue Nile.
Omotic peoples mainly inhabited southwestern Ethiopia.
Nilotes largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border.
Economic Formations
Agriculture and pastoralism coexisted and intermingled.
Pastoral economy in the eastern lowland: camel, goat, and cattle production.
Plough agriculture in the plateaus: Cushites, Semites, and Omotic groups.
Mixed farming and trade in northern Omo, pastoralism and fishing in southern Omo.
Pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture, and hunting in the western lowland region.
Religion & Religious Processes
Indigenous religions: Belief in Supreme Being, attribution of powers to natural phenomena.
Christianity: State religion, expanded through Nine Saints.
Islam: Spread through trade and peaceful means.
Syncretism: Fusion of indigenous, Christian, and Islamic practices.
Waqeffanna: Oromo religion based on Waqa (Supreme Being) and Ayyana (spirits).
Judaism: Haymanot religious practices by the Bete-Israel.
Unit 3: Politics, Economy, Society to the 13th Century
Concepts
Transition to sedentary agriculture and development of states.
States were formed through agriculture and trade.
States had population, defined territory, government, and sovereignty.
Favorable environmental conditions, control of international water bodies, and rich interior favored state development.
Ancient States
Punt: earliest recorded state, known from Egyptian records.
Da’amat: center south of Aksum, used politico-religious title Mukarib.
Aksumite State: Expanded from a small area to large territories, traded through Adulis, minted coins, and had external contacts.
Zagwe Dynasty: Shifted center southwards, maintained Aksumite traditions, constructed rock-hewn churches.
Other States
Bizamo, Damot, Enarya, and Gafat.
Muslim Sultanates: Shewa, Fatagar, Dawaro, Bali, Ifat, etc., established along trade routes.
External Contacts
Contacts with Egypt, South Arabia, and the Greco-Roman World.
Contacts with the East Roman or Byzantine Empire.
Contacts with Egyptian Muslim rulers
Myth about a very rich and powerful Christian ruler known as Prester John began to circulate in Europe
Economic Context
Agriculture: Plough agriculture and irrigation in highlands.
Communal land tenure system: family, clan, and lineage-based rights, peasants paid tribute.
Handicraft technology: metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, and weaving.
Trade: Exchange of goods within the region and through international routes.
Socio-Cultural Achievements
Architecture: Stele engraving in Aksum, Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela.
Writing: Evolved from Sabean language to Ge'ez script and Ethiopic writing system.
Calendar: Various calendars developed including Oromo calendar, the Sidama calendar, solar and lunar calendars.
Numerals: Appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth century A.D