Hispanic/Latino Americans

Hispanic/Latino Americans: Exclusion and Segregation

  • The U.S. claimed cultural and racial inferiority of Mexicans and Puerto Ricans to justify invasion and conquest of their lands.
  • Deculturalization programs were implemented to prevent uprisings against the new U.S. government, vital for retaining conquered lands like California and the southwestern U.S., and Puerto Rico, a key to the Caribbean.
  • Early educational struggles, especially over language, impacted later Hispanic/Latino immigrant groups after 1960.

What's in a Name?

  • The terms "Hispanic" and "Latino" are problematic as inclusive terms for widely disparate cultural groups.
  • Christy Haubegger notes the increasing Latino influence in America, suggesting a cultural shift since 1992 when salsa outsold ketchup.
  • Spanish language use can create a common Hispanic/Latino identity, strengthened during bilingual education struggles.
  • Juan Flores and George Yudice emphasize the role of language needs in identity formation.
  • The language issue is complicated by non-Spanish-speaking Native American groups from Mexico and Central America.
  • English-speaking countries in South and Central America (Belize, Guyana) and Portuguese-speaking Brazil further complicate the definition.
  • El Dia de la Raza (October 12, 1492) commemorates the birth of the Hispanic people as a hybrid race of Africans, Europeans, and Native Americans.
  • "La Raza" includes most Mexican, Central American, Caribbean, and South American peoples but excludes Native Americans without African or European ancestors and Europeans without African or Native American forebears.
  • Theoretically, U.S. citizens descended from enslaved Africans with European and Native American ancestors could also be considered Hispanic under "La Raza."
  • "Hispanic" dates back to the early 19th century when Simon Bolivar envisioned a Pan-American republic, encompassing all peoples not controlled by the U.S. or Canada.
  • "Latino" and "Latin America" arose from efforts to create a Pan-American union.
  • Francisco Bilbao coined "Latin America" in 1858, contrasting Anglo-Saxon temperament with the supposed warmth of others in the Americas.
  • "Latin" broke the direct link with Spain, leading many to prefer "Latino" to avoid association with Spanish cultural imperialism.
  • Latin America includes speakers of Latin-based languages like Portuguese (Brazilians) and French (Haitians).
  • Similar to "Hispanic", "Latino" excludes Native American peoples who do not speak Spanish, Portuguese, or French.
  • French-speaking Canadians could technically be called Latinos.
  • The focus will be on the educational struggles of the two largest Latino groups: Mexican Americans and Puerto Rican Americans.
  • The 2010 U.S. census identifies the largest Hispanic American groups as Mexican American (63%), Puerto Rican American (9.2%), Cuban American (3.5%), and Dominican American (2.8%).
  • Cuban and Dominican immigrants mostly arrived after the civil rights movement (1950s-1970s).

Issues Regarding Mexican American Citizenship

  • La Raza influenced Anglo-American attitudes toward their southern neighbors.
  • Nineteenth-century Anglo-American writers considered the mixture of Spanish conquerors and Native Americans to be inferior.
  • Anglo-Americans did not consider the Spanish as white and therefore they believed they were an inferior race.
  • Some American leaders hoped Anglo-Americans would displace all of La Raza.
  • Representative William Brown envisioned the Anglo-Saxon race spreading over Mexico and Central/South America.
  • The Mexican-American War (1846-1848) was a race war.
  • Mexicans were often singled out as the worst of La Raza and most Mexicans are either Native American or mestizos.
  • Secretary of State James Buchanan and Secretary of the Treasury Robert Walker viewed Northern Europeans (Anglo-Saxons) as the superior racial group.
  • They considered Mexican mestizos a substandard racial mixture.
  • Few U.S. citizens are aware of the war's significance for territorial expansion and the disaster it meant for Mexico, which lost almost half its territory.
  • The war resulted in the U.S. gaining major parts of California, Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and Texas.
  • Mexicans are constantly reminded of this loss by a monument in Mexico City commemorating the young Mexican boys who died defending against the U.S. military.
  • Including Mexican Americans and other Hispanic Americans as full U.S. citizens became a major issue in 1848 after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
  • Figure 5.1 Hispanic/Latino American Citizenship Time Line:
    • 1790: Naturalization Act - for whites only
    • 1848: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo - Grants U.S. citizenship to residents of lands ceded to U.S.
    • 1866: Civil Rights Act - U.S. citizenship for native-born except Native Americans
    • 1897: Texas courts declare Mexican Americans "nonwhite"
    • 1898: Puerto Rico conquered
    • 1896: Plessy decision - "Separate but equal"; restriction on voting rights
    • 1917: Jones Act - Grants U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans
    • 1935: California law declares Mexican Americans are foreign-born Indians
    • 1965: Voting Rights Act - Full citizenship granted
    • 1929-1935: Repatriation programs - Native-born U.S. citizens sent to Mexico
    • 1952: McCarren-Walter Act - Rescinds the racial restrictions of the 1790 Naturalization Act
    • 1975: Amendment to Voting Rights Act - Requires electoral ballots and information be multilingual
  • The Mexican government demanded citizenship rights for Mexicans remaining in ceded territories.
  • The events leading to the Mexican-American War occurred during the racial and cultural genocide of the Five Civilized Tribes.
  • U.S. settlers in Texas waged a war ending in 1837, with Mexico recognizing Texas as independent.
  • Texas debated annexation by the U.S.
  • Manifest destiny and racism increased friction between the United States and Mexico.
  • Manifest destiny was the belief that the United States was destined to rule the continent with a Protestant culture and republican government.
  • Mexico was seen to stand for Catholicism and feudalism.
  • In 1845, Texas was annexed to the United States.
  • President James Polk sent General Zachary Taylor to the Rio Grande to protect the Texas border which sparked a military reaction by Mexico.
  • Congress declared war on May 13, 1846.
  • Ulysses S. Grant called the war