2.2 Approaches to Research in Psychology

2.2 Approaches to Research

Learning Objectives

  • By the end of this section, you will be able to:

    • Describe the different research methods used by psychologists.

    • Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, and archival research.

    • Compare longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to research.

Overview of Research Methods

  • Psychologists have various research methods to understand, describe, and explain behavior and underlying cognitive and biological processes.

  • Methods can include:

    • Observational techniques.

    • Interactions - ranging from simple questions to in-depth interviews or well-controlled experiments.

  • Each method has unique strengths and limitations, appropriate for specific research questions.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Research Methods

  • Observational Studies:

    • Provide extensive information but limited ability to generalize due to small sample sizes.

  • Surveys:

    • Facilitate data collection from larger samples, enhancing generalizability, but the depth of information per individual is limited and subject to self-report biases.

  • Archival Research:

    • Involves using pre-existing records, inexpensive but lacks control over data collection quality and methods.

  • All methods mentioned are correlational, meaning they can identify relationships between variables but not cause-and-effect.

  • Experimental Research:

    • Offers control over variables; however, experiments can occur in artificial settings raising questions about real-world applicability. Ethical concerns may also limit experimental research opportunities.

Clinical or Case Studies

  • Case studies focus on one or a few individuals, yielding rich, detailed information.

  • Example: 2011 New York Times feature on conjoined twins Krista and Tatiana Hogan:

    • Connected in the thalamus, suggesting shared sensory experiences.

    • Offers valuable insights into brain processes.

  • Strengths:

    • Provides deep understanding of unique or rare phenomena.

  • Weaknesses:

    • Limited generalizability to the broader population due to focus on atypical cases.

Naturalistic Observation

  • A method for understanding behavior in its natural context without manipulation.

  • Challenges:

    • Observer influence may alter behavior if subjects are aware they are being watched.

  • Example: Observing handwashing in a restroom:

    • Participants might falsely report behavior; unobtrusive observation is necessary for accurate data collection.

  • Example Study: Suzanne Fanger's work on peer exclusion involving preschool children:

    • Utilized wireless microphones to minimize influence.

  • Applications in Animal Studies:

    • Researchers study social hierarchies and interactions among animal species through unobtrusive natural settings.

    • Jane Goodall's decades-long research on chimpanzee behavior serves as a significant example.

  • Benefits:

    • Results in higher ecological validity, providing realistic data that can be generalized to real-world contexts.

  • Limitations:

    • Difficult to control; potential for lack of observed behavior or external factors affecting the study.

Structured Observation

  • Observers record behaviors during specific tasks conducted in controlled settings.

  • Example: Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation procedure to evaluate infant-caregiver attachment styles.

Observer Bias

  • Observers may unintentionally skew observations to fit their hypotheses or expectations.

  • To mitigate bias, researchers:

    • Establish clear behavioral criteria.

    • Compare observations by multiple observers for reliability.

Surveys

  • Surveys are a popular method for data collection in psychology, utilizing lists of questions.

  • Administered as:

    • Paper-and-pencil questionnaires.

    • Electronic formats.

    • Verbally conducted interviews.

  • Strengths:

    • Allows for large sample sizes which increase generalizability.

  • Weaknesses:

    • Limited depth of information per participant; respondents may provide inaccurate self-reports.

  • Real-world Example: Jenkins et al. (2012) studied societal attitudes toward Arab-Americans post-9/11 with survey data:

    • Revealed subtle prejudices despite participant denials.

Archival Research

  • Involves examining existing records to find patterns or relationships without direct interaction with participants.

  • Example: Accessing academic records to evaluate variables affecting student completion rates.

  • Comparison with Other Methods:

    • Lower time and cost than other methods;

    • Limited by the information originally collected and its structure, complicating data comparisons.

Longitudinal vs. Cross-Sectional Research

  • Longitudinal Research:

    • Data is gathered repeatedly from the same cohort over an extended period.

    • Example: Tracking dietary habits at age 20, 30, 40.

  • Cross-Sectional Research:

    • Compares different age groups at a single point in time.

    • Example: Comparing dietary habits across age groups at the same time.

  • Strengths of Longitudinal Studies:

    • Reduces cohort effects, allowing more confident conclusions about changes over time.

    • Useful for studying disease and societal trends over decades (e.g., Cancer Prevention Study-3 to investigate cancer risk factors).

  • Challenges:

    • High time investment and financial resources required.

    • Participant dropouts can skew results, leading to high attrition rates.

Notable Studies

  • Cancer Prevention Study-3 (CPS-3):

    • Involves extensive tracking of participants over 20 years to analyze cancer-related data.

    • Early studies demonstrated links between smoking and cancer incidence.

Summary of Limitations

  • Longitudinal Studies:

    • Time-consuming and costly; participant commitment can wane over time due to life changes.

    • Researchers must actively manage dropouts to maintain sample representation.