MINOANS AND MYCENAEANS:
Minoans and Mycenaeans: Bronze Age Greece Civilizations
Minoans and Mycenaeans are names given to civilizations in Bronze Age Greece. The Minoans, named after mythical King Minos, centered their civilization on the island of Crete. The Mycenaeans, named after their most famous city, Mycenae, developed later.
MINOANS
Centered around Crete, an island in the Mediterranean Sea. Greece is a peninsula jutting into the Mediterranean. The natural harbors of the coast made the Minoans (Bronze Age Greeks) natural sea people who engaged in long-distance trade. Minoan civilization focused on the Mediterranean Sea. This area of Greece has some natural resources and agricultural products (wheat, barley, olives, grapes [wine]), but trade made other goods obtainable.
Thera (Santorini)
Thera (also known as modern Santorini) is a small island in the Aegean Sea. A volcano in 1629 \,\text{BC} changed the geography of the island permanently; many former sites are now submerged or covered by volcanic dust. The recovered sites on Thera provide archaeological information about the Minoans.
A painting on a Theran wall shows antelopes from Africa, suggesting the Minoans engaged in long-distance trade.
Another fresco on a Theran wall shows evidence of the Minoans as a sea-oriented people.
Palace of Knossos
Minos, the most famous of the Minoan kings, built and lived in this palace. The imposing and complicated floor plan of this palace gave us the term “labyrinth” (meaning “maze”). Later Greeks added a mythological component to the ruins of the palace, claiming the labyrinth housed the Minotaur (a creature with the head of a bull and the body of a man).
The Palace of Knossos did not have protective outer walls, nor did the city. This suggests the Minoans did not fear outside invaders, probably because they were protected by their isolation in the sea and their naval power.
Minoan Art and Architecture
A fresco shows a ritual known as “bull leaping,” a sport practiced by men and women involving acrobatic jumping over bulls. Scenes of this kind are common in Crete ruins. The bull is an important symbol in Minoan art, but historians are unsure of its larger significance to Minoan culture.
Minoan art paid little attention to military matters, differing from early Near Eastern art (Mesopotamia, Egypt, etc.).
The columns are characteristic expressions of Minoan architecture, which was designed to be earthquake-proof.
Linear A
Linear A is the writing system developed by the Minoans. However, modern historians cannot translate Linear A.
MYCENAEANS
The Minoans were overtaken by Mycenaeans (from southern Greece) in the late Bronze Age. The historical record of the Mycenaeans is clearer than that of the Minoans. Mycenaeans appear in the tomb scenes of ancient Egyptian pharaohs and in the records of the Hittites, showing them to be more integrated into the larger world than the Minoans.
Citadel of Mycenae
The Citadel of Mycenae (the city the Mycenaeans are named after) had protective walls, showing an emphasis on military matters, unlike the Minoans.
Note the column embedded between the two lions above the door. The column is also a feature of Minoan architecture, suggesting some continuity between the two civilizations.
Linear B
Linear B is an adapted version of Linear A.
It resembles (but is far from identical to) modern Greek and is decipherable by historians and linguists.
Linear B is usually found in records containing inventories or lists.
Very little Linear B writing shows representations of daily life or the values/beliefs of the Mycenaeans.
Mycenaean Developments
Tholos Tombs
Tholos tombs were monumental tombs where royal family members were buried; built into hillsides and shaped like a beehive.
It is a round chamber with a domed ceiling and a passage that leads to the chamber.
In Mycenae, 9 tholos tombs were found, and about one hundred in all of Greece.
The Mycenaean tholos tombs are dated between 1520 \,\text{BC} and 1300 \,\text{BC}; 9 out of 6 belong to a period between 1520 \,\text{BC} and 1450 \,\text{BC}. The 'Treasury of Atreus' belongs to the relatively recent period.
Treasury of Atreus
This tholos tomb - Treasury of Atreus or Tomb of Agamemnon - is the largest and best preserved of the nine tholos tombs found in Mycenae. It is dated about 1350-1330 \,\text{BC}.
Mask of Agamemnon
Agamemnon was among the more famous of the Mycenaean kings, appearing in mythologized form in later Greek literature. The so-called “Mask of Agamemnon” is from a Mycenaean tomb; however, the dating of the tomb makes it too old to actually be the face of the historical Agamemnon. The mask does show that Mycenaean kings were buried with their gold and wealth.
Mycenaean Hierarchy
Mycenaean society had a distinct hierarchy:
Wanax: Generally refers to a king, the head of the society.
Lawagetas: “Leader of the people” (and sometimes troops), served under the king.
Governors: Supervised territories under the control of the wanax and lawagetas.
Gwasileis: Similar to town or village mayor. This title survived into later Greek eras, where it would eventually refer to those at the top of the hierarchy.
Mycenaean Art
Some Mycenaean art is in ivory, indicating trade with other regions as ivory is not native to Greece. Possessing ivory was a status symbol, suggesting wealth. The bullhead shows Minoan influence on Mycenaean culture and art (bulls were important Minoan symbols).
Mycenaean architecture tends to be similar to the Minoans in character.
Mycenaean art shows more interest in violence and aspects involved with a warrior society (chariots, battle scenes, warriors, etc.).
Armor style (too clunky/heavy for infantry) was primarily worn by chariot warriors.
Helmets made of boar tusks showed the higher status of the owner.
Artwork shows Mycenaeans engaged in war with “barbarians” (the term “barbarians” in this sense and as used later in this class represents the attitudes of the more sophisticated or settled societies towards more nomadic or less organized peoples). The barbarians are denoted by the wearing of animal skins, while Mycenaeans have helmets. Conflicts with barbarian groups increased in later Mycenaean periods, resulting in a weakened Mycenaean state.
Bronze Age Mythology
The Bronze Age Mycenaeans are the basis for later Greek myths considered the “Age of Heroes.” Some of the heroes of these legends are fictional, while others are loosely based on actual historical figures given mythological status. Among the heroic figures linked to the myths of this era include Jason and the Argonauts, Hercules, King Oedipus of Thebes, and Agamemnon, in addition to the stories relating to the Trojan Wars.
Collapse of Bronze Age Greece
No "hero" stories are told of Mycenaeans after the Trojan War, likely because the movement of various populations (such as the Sea Peoples) led to the collapse of the Bronze Age political system.
Greeks from the north invaded the south, Mycenae and Crete, and Asia Minor.
Scribes wrote in Linear B for the old city-states; now that they dissolved, much of the literacy disappeared. This marked the beginning of a “dark age.”
Minoans and Mycenaeans: Bronze Age Greece Civilizations
Minoans and Mycenaeans are names given to civilizations in Bronze Age Greece. The Minoans, named after mythical King Minos, centered their civilization on the island of Crete. The Mycenaeans, named after their most famous city, Mycenae, developed later.
MINOANS
Centered around Crete, an island in the Mediterranean Sea. Greece is a peninsula jutting into the Mediterranean. The natural harbors of the coast made the Minoans (Bronze Age Greeks) natural sea people who engaged in long-distance trade. Minoan civilization focused on the Mediterranean Sea. This area of Greece has some natural resources and agricultural products (wheat, barley, olives, grapes [wine]), but trade made other goods obtainable.
Thera (Santorini)
Thera (also known as modern Santorini) is a small island in the Aegean Sea. A volcano in 1629 \,\text{BC} changed the geography of the island permanently; many former sites are now submerged or covered by volcanic dust. The recovered sites on Thera provide archaeological information about the Minoans.
A painting on a Theran wall shows antelopes from Africa, suggesting the Minoans engaged in long-distance trade.
Another fresco on a Theran wall shows evidence of the Minoans as a sea-oriented people.
Palace of Knossos
Minos, the most famous of the Minoan kings, built and lived in this palace. The imposing and complicated floor plan of this palace gave us the term “labyrinth” (meaning “maze”). Later Greeks added a mythological component to the ruins of the palace, claiming the labyrinth housed the Minotaur (a creature with the head of a bull and the body of a man).
The Palace of Knossos did not have protective outer walls, nor did the city. This suggests the Minoans did not fear outside invaders, probably because they were protected by their isolation in the sea and their naval power.
Minoan Art and Architecture
A fresco shows a ritual known as “bull leaping,” a sport practiced by men and women involving acrobatic jumping over bulls. Scenes of this kind are common in Crete ruins. The bull is an important symbol in Minoan art, but historians are unsure of its larger significance to Minoan culture.
Minoan art paid little attention to military matters, differing from early Near Eastern art (Mesopotamia, Egypt, etc.).
The columns are characteristic expressions of Minoan architecture, which was designed to be earthquake-proof.
Linear A
Linear A is the writing system developed by the Minoans. However, modern historians cannot translate Linear A.
MYCENAEANS
The Minoans were overtaken by Mycenaeans (from southern Greece) in the late Bronze Age. The historical record of the Mycenaeans is clearer than that of the Minoans. Mycenaeans appear in the tomb scenes of ancient Egyptian pharaohs and in the records of the Hittites, showing them to be more integrated into the larger world than the Minoans.
Citadel of Mycenae
The Citadel of Mycenae (the city the Mycenaeans are named after) had protective walls, showing an emphasis on military matters, unlike the Minoans.
Note the column embedded between the two lions above the door. The column is also a feature of Minoan architecture, suggesting some continuity between the two civilizations.
Linear B
Linear B is an adapted version of Linear A.
It resembles (but is far from identical to) modern Greek and is decipherable by historians and linguists.
Linear B is usually found in records containing inventories or lists.
Very little Linear B writing shows representations of daily life or the values/beliefs of the Mycenaeans.
Mycenaean Developments
Tholos Tombs
Tholos tombs were monumental tombs where royal family members were buried; built into hillsides and shaped like a beehive.
It is a round chamber with a domed ceiling and a passage that leads to the chamber.
In Mycenae, 9 tholos tombs were found, and about one hundred in all of Greece.
The Mycenaean tholos tombs are dated between 1520 \,\text{BC} and 1300 \,\text{BC}; 9 out of 6 belong to a period between 1520 \,\text{BC} and 1450 \,\text{BC}. The 'Treasury of Atreus' belongs to the relatively recent period.
Treasury of Atreus
This tholos tomb - Treasury of Atreus or Tomb of Agamemnon - is the largest and best preserved of the nine tholos tombs found in Mycenae. It is dated about 1350-1330 \,\text{BC} .
Mask of Agamemnon
Agamemnon was among the more famous of the Mycenaean kings, appearing in mythologized form in later Greek literature. The so-called “Mask of Agamemnon” is from a Mycenaean tomb; however, the dating of the tomb makes it too old to actually be the face of the historical Agamemnon. The mask does show that Mycenaean kings were buried with their gold and wealth.
Mycenaean Hierarchy
Mycenaean society had a distinct hierarchy:
Wanax: Generally refers to a king, the head of the society.
Lawagetas: “Leader of the people” (and sometimes troops), served under the king.
Governors: Supervised territories under the control of the wanax and lawagetas.
Gwasileis: Similar to town or village mayor. This title survived into later Greek eras, where it would eventually refer to those at the top of the hierarchy.
Mycenaean Art
Some Mycenaean art is in ivory, indicating trade with other regions as ivory is not native to Greece. Possessing ivory was a status symbol, suggesting wealth. The bullhead shows Minoan influence on Mycenaean culture and art (bulls were important Minoan symbols).
Mycenaean architecture tends to be similar to the Minoans in character.
Mycenaean art shows more interest in violence and aspects involved with a warrior society (chariots, battle scenes, warriors, etc.).
Armor style (too clunky/heavy for infantry) was primarily worn by chariot warriors.
Helmets made of boar tusks showed the higher status of the owner.
Artwork shows Mycenaeans engaged in war with “barbarians” (the term “barbarians” in this sense and as used later in this class represents the attitudes of the more sophisticated or settled societies towards more nomadic or less organized peoples). The barbarians are denoted by the wearing of animal skins, while Mycenaeans have helmets. Conflicts with barbarian groups increased in later Mycenaean periods, resulting in a weakened Mycenaean state.
Bronze Age Mythology
The Bronze Age Mycenaeans are the basis for later Greek myths considered the “Age of Heroes.” Some of the heroes of these legends are fictional, while others are loosely based on actual historical figures given mythological status. Among the heroic figures linked to the myths of this era include Jason and the Argonauts, Hercules, King Oedipus of Thebes, and Agamemnon, in addition to the stories relating to the Trojan Wars.
Collapse of Bronze Age Greece
No "hero" stories are told of Mycenaeans after the Trojan War, likely because the movement of various populations (such as the Sea Peoples) led to the collapse of the Bronze Age political system.
Greeks from the north invaded the south, Mycenae and Crete, and Asia Minor.
Scribes wrote in Linear B for the old city-states; now that they dissolved, much of the literacy disappeared. This marked the beginning of a “dark age.”
HELLENE:
Mythical Ancestor: According to tradition, Hellene was the king of Phthia in Thessaly.
Ancestry of Greeks: He is the mythical ancestor of all Hellenes (Greeks).
Divisions: His sons became the ancestors of the four main divisions of Greeks:
Aeolians: Descended from Aeolus.
Dorians: Descended from Dorus.
Ionians and Achaeans: Descended through the sons of Xuthus (Ion and Achaeus).
GREEK DIALECTS
Traditional Regions: Archaic Greece had three traditional regions with distinct language dialects: Aiolians, Ionians, and Dorians.
Dorian Conquest Theory: Greek tradition suggests the Dorian conquest of southern Greece led to the end of Mycenaean power, but archaeological evidence does not support this idea.
Spelling Variations: Ancient Greek words/names varied in spelling by dialect (e.g., Athenai, Athenae, and Athens refer to the same city).
GREEK ALPHABET
Replacement of Linear B: The Greek alphabet replaced Linear B.
Key Feature: Unlike the Phoenician alphabet (which used only consonants), the Greek version includes vowels.
Legacy: The Latin alphabet, used today, is based on the Greek alphabet.
GREEK LITERATURE
Homer:
Greek Poet: Most famous for the Iliad (about the Trojan War) and The Odyssey (about Odysseus's return after a decade of war).
Historical vs. Literature: Both works are primarily literature, not necessarily accurate history, though The Odyssey is considered more historically accurate.
Cultural Connection: This literature helped Greeks from different areas (like Doria and Ionia) feel connected to a larger Greek culture.
Hesiod:
Greek Poet:
Most famous for Theogony, which was emblematic of common Greek identity and described the origin of the Greek gods.
Also wrote Works and Days, a didactic poem (around 700 \,\text{BC}) in dactylic hexameter (828 lines) that served as a farmer's almanac, instructing his brother Perses in agricultural practices.
GREEK RELIGION
Gods:
Unifying Factor: Greek religion was a unifying factor among the many different city-states.
Olympian Gods: Most gods "lived" on Mt. Olympus, such as Zeus, the "father of Gods" and "god of lightning."
Other Gods: Some gods, like Poseidon (god of the sea), lived in their respective domains.
Temples:
Purpose: Temples dedicated to individual gods and goddesses were spread throughout Greece.
Reaffirmation: These temples reaffirmed the collective "Greekness" despite people living in independent city-states.
Oracles:
Function: Greeks and others consulted oracles for prophecies.
Famous Oracle: The oracle at Delphi was the most famous.
OLYMPICS
Purpose: Every four years, people gathered to honor Zeus.
Activities: Celebrations included athletic competitions (forerunner to modern Olympics) like running races, wrestling, and chariot races.
Cultural Significance:
New Obsession: The obsession with sports was a new phenomenon for civilization.
Arete: The Greek concept of "arête" required competition to display one's excellence.
Definition of Arete: "Excellence," a virtue important to Greek society, achievable in civic spirit, athletics, war, art, etc.
ROAD TO DEMOCRACY
Colonization:
Period: Greek colonization occurred between the 9^\text{th} and 7^\text{th} centuries BC .
Nature: Greek outposts were often considered independent city-states, differing from modern colonies.
Motivation: Colonization was a method to alleviate Greece's growing population.
Phoenicians:
Rivalry: Phoenicians were in constant competition with Greece for areas of colonization and trade.
WHY COLONIZATION?
Overpopulation: Led to changes in government.
Solutions: Colonizing solved overpopulation issues by expanding to areas like Spain, Italy, and the Black Sea (emigration).
Economic Impact:
Emigration led to more trade.
More trade led to more wealth for traders.
Increased wealth led to a rise in social status, which in turn fueled demand for political equality.
Implication: This ultimately paved the way for democracy.
WHY DEMOCRACY?
Demand for Change: As the wealth and power of the aristocracy grew, so did resentment of nobles' power, leading people to demand change.
Warfare Changes (650 \,\text{BC}):
Iron Weapons: Iron replaced bronze weapons, leading to new fighting methods.
Phalanx: The phalanx formation (a tight unit of heavily armed infantry) reduced class differences by requiring more men to fight.
Recruitment: Lower classes were recruited as foot soldiers to meet this demand.
Political Rights: These soldiers wouldn't fight without the promise of political rights.
Outcome: This led to the emergence of two influential city-states, Sparta and Athens, though only one would become democratic.
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT IN GREECE BEFORE DEMOCRACY
Basileus (King/Monarch):
Role: Ruled city-states; sometimes a city (e.g., Sparta) had more than one basileus simultaneously.
Evolution: During Mycenaean times, they were village chieftains. By ancient Greece's apex, they were seen as royal (monarchy, rule of one).
Subordination: Eventually, they were subordinated by the Greek aristocracy.
Aristocracy (Rule of the Best):
Definition: Translates to "rule of the best."
Nature: Rule by a few, composed of citizens with the best intentions for the polis.
Oligarchy (Rule of the Few):
Mythical Ancestor: According to tradition, Hellene was the king of Phthia in Thessaly.
Ancestry of Greeks: He is the mythical ancestor of all Hellenes (Greeks).
Divisions: His sons became the ancestors of the four main divisions of Greeks:
Aeolians: Descended from Aeolus.
Dorians: Descended from Dorus.
Ionians and Achaeans: Descended through the sons of Xuthus (Ion and Achaeus).
GREEK DIALECTS
Traditional Regions: Archaic Greece had three traditional regions with distinct language dialects: Aiolians, Ionians, and Dorians.
Dorian Conquest Theory: Greek tradition suggests the Dorian conquest of southern Greece led to the end of Mycenaean power, but archaeological evidence does not support this idea.
Spelling Variations: Ancient Greek words/names varied in spelling by dialect (e.g., Athenai, Athenae, and Athens refer to the same city).
GREEK ALPHABET
Replacement of Linear B: The Greek alphabet replaced Linear B.
Key Feature: Unlike the Phoenician alphabet (which used only consonants), the Greek version includes vowels.
Legacy: The Latin alphabet, used today, is based on the Greek alphabet.
GREEK LITERATURE
Homer:
Greek Poet: Most famous for the Iliad (about the Trojan War) and The Odyssey (about Odysseus's return after a decade of war).
Historical vs. Literature: Both works are primarily literature, not necessarily accurate history, though The Odyssey is considered more historically accurate.
Cultural Connection: This literature helped Greeks from different areas (like Doria and Ionia) feel connected to a larger Greek culture.
Hesiod:
Greek Poet:
Most famous for Theogony, which was emblematic of common Greek identity and described the origin of the Greek gods.
Also wrote Works and Days, a didactic poem (around 700 \,\text{BC}) in dactylic hexameter (828 lines) that served as a farmer's almanac, instructing his brother Perses in agricultural practices.
GREEK RELIGION
Gods:
Unifying Factor: Greek religion was a unifying factor among the many different city-states.
Olympian Gods: Most gods "lived" on Mt. Olympus, such as Zeus, the "father of Gods" and "god of lightning."
Other Gods: Some gods, like Poseidon (god of the sea), lived in their respective domains.
Temples:
Purpose: Temples dedicated to individual gods and goddesses were spread throughout Greece.
Reaffirmation: These temples reaffirmed the collective "Greekness" despite people living in independent city-states.
Oracles:
Function: Greeks and others consulted oracles for prophecies.
Famous Oracle: The oracle at Delphi was the most famous.
OLYMPICS
Purpose: Every four years, people gathered to honor Zeus.
Activities: Celebrations included athletic competitions (forerunner to modern Olympics) like running races, wrestling, and chariot races.
Cultural Significance:
New Obsession: The obsession with sports was a new phenomenon for civilization.
Arete: The Greek concept of "arête" required competition to display one's excellence.
Definition of Arete: "Excellence," a virtue important to Greek society, achievable in civic spirit, athletics, war, art, etc.
ROAD TO DEMOCRACY
Colonization:
Period: Greek colonization occurred between the 9^\text{th} and 7^\text{th} centuries BC.
Nature: Greek outposts were often considered independent city-states, differing from modern colonies.
Motivation: Colonization was a method to alleviate Greece's growing population.
Phoenicians:
Rivalry: Phoenicians were in constant competition with Greece for areas of colonization and trade.
WHY COLONIZATION?
Overpopulation: Led to changes in government.
Solutions: Colonizing solved overpopulation issues by expanding to areas like Spain, Italy, and the Black Sea (emigration).
Economic Impact:
Emigration led to more trade.
More trade led to more wealth for traders.
Increased wealth led to a rise in social status, which in turn fueled demand for political equality.
Implication: This ultimately paved the way for democracy.
WHY DEMOCRACY?
Demand for Change: As the wealth and power of the aristocracy grew, so did resentment of nobles' power, leading people to demand change.
Warfare Changes (650 \,\text{BC}):
Iron Weapons: Iron replaced bronze weapons, leading to new fighting methods.
Phalanx: The phalanx formation (a tight unit of heavily armed infantry) reduced class differences by requiring more men to fight.
Recruitment: Lower classes were recruited as foot soldiers to meet this demand.
Political Rights: These soldiers wouldn't fight without the promise of political rights.
Outcome: This led to the emergence of two influential city-states, Sparta and Athens, though only one would become democratic.
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT IN GREECE BEFORE DEMOCRACY
Basileus (King/Monarch):
Role: Ruled city-states; sometimes a city (e.g., Sparta) had more than one basileus simultaneously.
Evolution: During Mycenaean times, they were village chieftains. By ancient Greece's apex, they were seen as royal (monarchy, rule of one).
Subordination: Eventually, they were subordinated by the Greek aristocracy.
Aristocracy (Rule of the Best):
Definition: Translates to "rule of the best."
Nature: Rule by a few, composed of citizens with the best intentions for the polis.
Oligarchy (Rule of the Few):
Definition: Translates to "rule of the few."
Nature: Government run by a select group; not necessarily bad, but always exclusive.
Evolution: Greek society evolved from monarchs to rule by oligarchy.