Exposing logical fallacies pt III In Dept
Critical Thinking: Fallacies
Review of Previously Covered Fallacies
Ad Hominem:
An argument that attacks a person rather than their opinion or claim.
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc:
A fallacy that states if two events occur in succession, the first must cause the second.
Red Herring:
A diversionary tactic to pull attention away from the main topic by introducing a related subject, which misleads or distracts.
Slippery Slope:
The belief that if event one occurs, then event two will inevitably follow, leading to undesirable outcomes.
Hasty Generalization:
Jumping to conclusions based on insufficient evidence or too few examples.
New Fallacies Introduction
False or Faulty Analogy
Definition:
A comparison between two things that do not have enough similarities to warrant the analogy.
Common Expressions:
The phrase "comparing apples to oranges" exemplifies this fallacy.
Examples:
Example 1:
Both books are leather-bound with gold lettering and over 500 pages, so they must be equally well-written.
This comparison lacks substance since cover appearance does not reflect content quality.
Interpretation: Judging by covers alone is misleading.
Example 2:
Comparing today's stock market with that of the 1920s.
Misleading because the economic regulations established post-1929 create differences that are not acknowledged in the comparison.
Example 3:
"If we can put a man on the moon, why can’t we find a cure for the common cold?"
This assumes that success in one scientific domain guarantees success in all.
Example 4:
Comparing guns to hammers: "Guns are like hammers; both can kill, so restrictions should apply to both."
This analogy ignores the fundamental purpose of guns versus hammers.
Example 5:
Statement: "If guns kill people, then pencils misspell words, cars drive drunk, and spoons make people fat.”
This fallacy implies inanimate objects can operate independently, neglecting that legal restrictions address human behavior, not objects.
Either-Or Fallacy
Definition:
Presents a situation as having only two alternatives, one typically being undesirable, oversimplifying complex issues.
Examples:
Example 1:
Someone finishes an exam early, either very smart or very stupid.
This overlooks other potential reasons like illness or strategy in answering questions.
Example 2:
"Either we must ban homosexuality, or the American way of life will collapse.”
This assumes a false dichotomy as it ignores other potential outcomes.
Example 3:
"The only way to avoid an early death is to stop smoking.”
This disregards other factors affecting longevity.
Example 4:
"Are you a Republican or a Democrat?"
This simplifies political identity to only two options, ignoring a spectrum of beliefs.
Example 5:
"Either you're with us or you're with the terrorists."
This statement seeks to manipulate opinion by framing choices as starkly binary.
Example 6:
"If you support the war, you support the troops; if you don't, you don't support the troops.”
This simplifies complex opinions on war into a binary choice.
Begging the Question (Circular Reasoning)
Definition:
A fallacy where the premises assume the conclusion is true without providing real evidence or support.
Illustration:
Structure: "X is true because X is true."
Examples:
Example 1:
"If such actions were not illegal, they wouldn’t be prohibited.”
Offers no explanation as to what makes an action illegal.
Example 2:
"The belief in God is universal; after all, everyone believes in God."
Assumes universality without evidence.
Example 3:
"Paranormal activity exists because I’ve experienced things I can’t explain otherwise."
Fails to provide factual evidence for paranormal claims.
Example 4:
"Women should have the right to choose to have an abortion; therefore, abortion should be legal."
The conclusion and premise are essentially the same with no evidence.
Example 5:
"The unborn have a right to life; therefore, abortion is immoral."
The assertion lacks supporting reasoning or evidence.
Straw Man Fallacy
Definition:
A fallacy that occurs when a person's argument is misrepresented or distorted to make it easier to attack.
Examples:
Example 1:
Senator A states they will not support additional allocations to the defense budget.
Opponent claims Senator A wants to leave the country defenseless, misrepresenting the original statement about budget allocation.
Example 2:
A biology teacher says, "All things evolve.”
A student mistakenly thinks the teacher claims humans evolved from bugs, which creates a mischaracterized view of evolution that is easier to argue against.
Conclusion
Each of these fallacies serves to undermine logical reasoning and argumentation. Recognizing them is essential for effective critical thinking and discourse. Being aware of how common they are in rhetoric can enhance both defensive and offensive positions in arguments.