Taxonomy and Ecology

• Taxonomy - Names of organisms are based on prefixes and suffixes

  • First name is the genus - capitalized, italicized, may be abbreviated after it is written once

  • Last name is the species - lowercase, italicized

  • EXAMPLE - Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)

    • Staph being Clustered together

    • Coccus being sphere or ball shaped

    • Aureus being yellow of golden

Categories of Cells

• Prokaryotic Cell vs Eukaryotic Cell

  • Prokaryotes

    • Do not have nucleus - DNA is held in the Nucleoid

    • No membrane bound organelles

    • Usually smaller than eukaryotic cells

    • Cell wall composed of Peptidoglycan

  • Eukaryotes

    • Contain nucleus, a cytoskeleton, and membrane bound organelles

    • Nucleus contains genetic information that us organized into chromosomes

    • Nucleus is bound by the nuclear envelope

    • DNA is more complex then that of Prokaryotic cells

    • Cytoskeleton is make of proteins that provide a shape and support

Ecology

• The study of living organisms and their relationship with one another

  • Organisms live within ecosystems of communities that occupy a particular space

• Ecosystems - The biological community + its physical environment

  • A population is made up of members of the same species

  • An ecological Niche is where and how an organism fits into their ecosystem

  • Disrupting one component of an ecosystem could disrupt the entire system

• Resource Competition

  • Organisms within an ecosystem compete for resources

  • Each organism within an ecosystem plays a different role in the food web

• Organism Classification

  • Producers are able to photosynthesize

    • They use carbon dioxide and water to create nourishment for themselves

  • Consumers feed on other organisms

    • There are several types of consumers;

      • Herbivores - feeding strictly on plant matter

      • Carnivores - feeding strictly on animals

      • Omnivores feed on plants and animals

      • Decomposers feed on dead matter

        • Scavengers (feed on dead animals) and Saprophytes are decomposer plants, fungi, and microorganisms

• Food Chains and Food Webs

  • Shows the order in which animals feed on each other

  • More of a web than a chain, interactions and interrelations are much more complex

  • Prey animals are eaten, predator animals eat other animals

  • An animal can be both predator and prey within a web

• Tolerance

  • In addition to having a place in the food web, all species also have a tolerance level

    • Tolerance levels determine how much of something an organism can handle — water temperature, pH levels, etc.

• Species and Niches

  • Generalist - Species can tolerate a wide range of conditions

  • Specialists - species can tolerate much more narrow range of conditions

  • Endemic - Species only occur in one specific area

Biological Relationships

• Symbiotic - Organisms of different species live in close nutritional relationships

  • Mutualism - Organisms of two different species live in close association to the mutual benefit of each

  • Commensalism - Two organisms of different species in which one gains some benefit and the other is not harmed

  • Parasitism - Two organisms in which one is harmed and the other is benefited

• Non-Symbiotic Relationship

  • Synergism - Organisms do better together

  • Antagonism - Organisms do worse when together

• Microbiome/Microbiota

  • Microbiome - Complex community of microorganisms that live in and on the human body

    • Microbiota/Microflora - just the microorganisms

    • Normal flora make up the organisms that consistently live in and on your body

    • Normal flora population is different for everyone

Anatomy

• Anatomical Position - used as a reference in describing body parts to one another in which the body is erect, feet together, palms forward, and the thumbs are pointed away

  • Anterior - The front/Ventral

  • Posterior - the back/dorsal

  • Inferior - beneath/lower

  • Superior - toward the top of the head

  • Lateral - towards the side

  • Medial - towards the midline

  • Parietal - pertaining to the wall of a cavity

  • Visceral - pertaining to the internal organs container within a cavity

  • Deep - Below the surface

  • Superficial - the surface

  • Distal - Distance

  • Proximal - nearest point of attachment of a limb to the trunk of the body

  • Parallel vs Perpendicular

• Connective Tissues

  • Tendons - strong, inelastic tissues that anchor muscles to bones

  • Fascia - connective tissue that surrounds and secures structures

  • Cartilage - flexible but firm connective tissue

  • Ligaments - fibrous connective tissue that connects two bones or cartilage

  • Fibrocartilage - dense fibrous cartilagionus tissue

• Integumentary

  • Largest organ

  • Epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis

  • Functions include protection, temperature regulation, excretion, vitamin d synthesis, and a sense organ

  • Accessory structures - hair, nails, sudoriferous glands (sweat), and sebaceous glands (sebum)

• Skeletal

  • Functions as the internal framework, protection, movement, and hematopoiesis

  • 206 bones

    • Skull - 22 bones + 6 ear ossicles

      • Cranial Bones (8)

        • Frontal

        • Parietal - 2

        • Occipital

        • Temporal - 2

        • Sphenoid

        • Ethmoid

      • Facial Bone - 14

        • Nasal -2

        • Lacrimal - 2

        • Zygomatic - 2

        • Palatine - 2

        • Maxilla - 2

        • Vomer - 1

        • Inferior nasal conchae - 2

        • Mandible

    • Hyoid Bone

    • Vertebrae - 26

      • Cervical - 7

        • C1-C7

      • Thoratic - 12

        • T1 - T12

      • Lumbar - 5

        • L1 - L5

      • Sacrum - 1

    • Sternum

    • Ribs - 24

      • 14 true ribs - connect directly to the sternum

      • 10 false “floating” ribs

    • Upper extremities - Pectoral girdle - 64 bones

    • Lower extremities - Pelvic girdle - 62 bones

  • Axial skeleton - 80 bones

  • Appendicular - 126 bones

    • Clavicle - 2

    • Scapula - 2

    • Humerus - 2

    • Ulna - 2

    • Radius - 2

    • Carpals - 16

    • Metacarpals - 10

    • Phalanges (hands) - 28

    • Os Coxae - 2

    • Femur - 2

    • Patella - 2

    • Tibia - 2

    • Fibula - 2

    • Tarsals - 14

    • Metatarsals - 10

    • Phalanges - 28

  • Bursae - fluid-filled cushions to reduce friction for joints

  • Ossification - the process of bone formation

  • Compact Bone - an outer, harder layer of bone

  • Cancellous bone - inner porous bone

• Digestive

  • Peristalsis - movements and contractions that push ingested material

  • Bolus mass of chewed food

  • Chyme - Bolus + gastric juices

  • Enzymes - Are what speed up reactions

  • Process of Digestion

    • Begins with mastication/chewing

    • Food enters the pharynx

    • Bolus enters esophagus

    • Bolus enters stomach

    • Digestion continues into the stomach

    • Chyme enters the small intestine

    • Digestion continues in the small intestine with the help of pancreatic juices and bile

      • DJ ICE - Duodenum, Jejunum, ileum

    • Chyme moves into the large intestine

    • Digestion continues in the large intestine and salt and water are reabsorbed

      • Cecum (contained vermiform and appendix)

      • Colon

    • Waste products are excreted

  • Accessory Organs

    • Liver - Exocrine gland functioning in metabolism, bile production, and detoxification of blood

    • Gallbladder - Stores Bile

    • Pancreas - Gland that produces pancreatic juices

    • Peritoneum - membrane lining the abdominal cavity and abdominal organs

• Muscular System

  • Types

    • Smooth - not under conscious control

    • Skeletal - Consiously controlled

    • Cardiac - Heart muscle

  • Movements

    • Flexion - Decrease of angle

    • Extension - Opening the angle

    • Abduction - away from the body

    • Adduction - bringing back to the body

    • Supination - palms out

    • Pronation - palms in

• Respiratory System

  • Gas exchange between CO2 and oxygen

  • Oxygenation of cells and removing waste products

  • Filtering, warming, and humidifying air

  • Speech and Smell

  • External Respiration - Inhaling and exhaling

  • Internal respiration - exchange of CO2 and Oxygen

  • Pathway of Air

    • Nose

    • Pharynx

      • Larynx - Voice box

    • Trachae

    • Bronchi

    • Secondary Bronchi

    • Bronchioles

    • Alveoli

  • Lungs

    • Trachea leads into the lungs

    • Function in mainly in gas exchange

    • Pleura (visceral + parietal) surrounds the lungs

    • Three lobes in right lung

    • Two lobes in the Left

• Nervous system

  • The function is to transmit information via nerve impulses from one area to another

  • Central nervous system is the brain + spinal cord

  • Peripheral nervous system is the spinal and cranial nerves

  • Corpus Callosum divides the brain into two hemispheres

  • Ventricles are the cavities in the brain

  • Divisions of the Brain

    • Brainstem - basic functions

    • Cerebellum - coordination of muscle movements

    • Diencephalon - Hormones, relaying signals, regulating sleep

    • Cerebrum - sensory perception, emotions, higher level thinking

  • Nervous System Components

    • Spinal Cord - Carries impulses

    • Meninges - Protective covering

    • Cerebrospinal Fluid - protection and nutrients

    • Cranial nerves - 12 pairs

    • Spinal nerves - 31 pairs

• Endocrine System

  • Glands

    • Pituitary - “Master Gland” that functions in release of hormones from other glands

      • Located on the Sella turcica

    • Thyroid - functions in metabolism and regulation of body functions located in the neck

    • Parathyroid - regulate calcium

    • Adrenal - control heart rate, blood pressure, and function in immune response

    • Islets of Langerhans - regulate blood glucose

    • Thymus - functions in immune response and WBC maturation

    • Pineal - Produces melatonin

• Urinary system

  • Main function is production and excretion of urine

  • Assists in maintaining the concentration of various chemicals in the body

  • Also functions in maintaining blood pressure

  • Kidneys - cleanse waste products from the blood

    • Right kidney sits a little lower than the left

    • Nephron - Microscopic units of the kidney

  • Ureters - tubes that can carry urine to the bladder

  • Urinary bladder - organ that collects urine

  • Urethra - passageway to excrete urine

• Lymphatic System

  • Moves lymph through the body and assists with immune response and removal of waste

  • Lymph - fluid that returns excess fluid and protein molecules back to the blood and transportation for lymphocytes

  • Lymphatic vessels collect and filter lymph and the lymph nodes

  • Lymphatic Veins eventually empty into the subclavian veins

  • Tonsils and the spleen function in the lymphatic system

• Cardiovascular System

  • Blood Vessels

    • Arteries - large vessels that take blood from the heart to the body

      • Do not have valves

      • Carry oxygenated blood with the exception of the pulmonary arteries

      • lead into arterioles

    • Capillaries

      • Capillary - semi-permeable minute blood vessels allowing for the diffusion of arterial embalming fluid

      • Distribute oxygenated blood to the tissues/body

      • lead from arterioles into venules

    • Veins

      • Blood vessels that carry blood from the venules back to the heart

      • Thinner walls because the pressure is not as high

      • Contain valves to prevent backflow

      • Carry deoxygenated blood with the exception of pulmonary veins

      • All veins empty into the superior vena cava or the inferior vena cava

    • Other structures

      • Vesa Vasorum - blood vessels that supply the walls of larger arteries with oxygenated blood and remove deoxygenated blood

      • Collateral Circulation - network of blood vessels that provide an alternate route for blood flow

      • Anastomosis - connection between vessels; union of two vessels going to the same body part