Who Built America Chapter Two

2. Servitude, Slavery, and the Growth of the Southern Colonies, 1620-1760

2.1 Overview of the Southern Colonies

The Southern colonies of North America, including Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, developed a distinctive identity profoundly shaped by the institution of slavery and an over-reliance on plantation agriculture. By the mid-eighteenth century, slavery had become an integral component of social and economic life in these regions. The economy heavily concentrated on cash crops such as tobacco in the Chesapeake region and rice in the Lower South. These cash crops required intensive labor, which led to the transition from an initial reliance on indentured servitude—temporary labor by Europeans who contracted to work for a set number of years—to a system of chattel slavery, where enslaved individuals were treated as property with no rights and no end date to their servitude, often forcibly passed from one owner to the next.

2.2 Early African Presence

The first documented arrival of African slaves in Virginia occurred in 1619 when a ship transporting enslaved individuals landed at Point Comfort. Many of these Africans were brought over from the Caribbean and initially arrived in small numbers. At first, the population of enslaved Africans was minimal when compared to the larger population of indentured servants, who were mostly Europeans seeking economic opportunities in the Americas. However, the increasing demand for labor on tobacco and rice plantations prompted landowners to shift toward enslaved labor. The dynamics of labor and land ownership would fundamentally change in the context of rising tensions, notably exemplified in Bacon's Rebellion in 1676, which highlighted and exacerbated fears among elite landowners regarding the agency and possible rebellion of their labor force, whether indentured or enslaved.

2.3 Transition from Servitude to Slavery

Initially characterized as a "society with slaves," where slavery coexisted with some opportunities for indentured servitude, the Chesapeake colonies transitioned into a more rigidly defined "slave society" by the early 18th century. Laws began shifting to obscure lines between servant and slave, with legislative measures designed explicitly to protect the interests of white landowners. The evolution included the establishment of clear legal distinctions that defined enslaved individuals as property rather than individuals with rights. This transformation was significantly influenced by events like Bacon's Rebellion, which created a sense of urgency among elite landowners to prevent poor whites (indentured servants) from joining forces with enslaved blacks, ultimately leading to the codification of racial slavery in colonial law, where laws were enacted to restrict the freedoms of enslaved individuals while ensuring the privileges of landowners.

2.4 Conditions of Slavery

Enslaved individuals in the Southern colonies faced brutal conditions characterized by severe oppression, strict controls, and violent punishment. They were subjected to an authoritarian structure where their every action could be monitored and punished harshly. Accounts from formerly enslaved individuals, such as David George, provide chilling reflections on the physical and psychological punishments inflicted by their owners for resistance or failure to meet expectations. Many enslaved persons labored long hours under treacherous conditions in fields while living in substandard housing with little access to adequate food or medical care. The constant threat of family separation—either through sale or relocation—added to the psychological trauma of enslavement, creating an environment steeped in fear and desperation.

2.5 Slave Resistance and Rebellion

Resistance among enslaved populations was multifaceted, demonstrating the underlying tensions within the system of slavery. Acts of defiance ranged from subtle sabotage of work to more overt rebellions, such as the Stono Rebellion of 1739, where a group of enslaved Africans organized an armed revolt in South Carolina. The rebellion resulted in the death of several white colonists and a brutal crackdown on those involved. In response to acts of resistance like Stono, colonial authorities instituted increasingly severe punishments and legislative measures to control the enslaved population. These repressive measures included tighter restrictions on movement and assembly, as well as direct repercussions for those found to be aiding or abetting enslaved individuals seeking freedom.

2.6 African American Culture

Despite an environment marked by brutality and oppression, enslaved Africans cultivated a rich cultural identity that facilitated community cohesion. Kinship ties, oral traditions, and spiritual practices became crucial avenues for maintaining identity and resilience. Enslaved people developed unique expressions of culture that blended African traditions with local realities, evidenced through music, dance, storytelling, and religious practices. The creation of a distinct African American culture was supported through communal spaces on plantations, where they shared experiences, cared for one another, and derived strength in unity—creating bonds that sustained them amid ongoing violence and the threat of separation.

2.7 Economic Systems

The Southern colonies' economy was fundamentally agrarian, reliant on agriculture and heavily shaped by the cultivation of cash crops. Planters aggressively pursued profit, which in turn drove an insatiable demand for enslaved labor. This economic model reinforced a rigid social hierarchy, placing wealth into the hands of a small elite group—primarily plantation owners—while poorer whites, who might not own land or slaves, found themselves in a tenuous social position. The economic framework not only benefitted the landowners but also fostered an atmosphere that encouraged poor whites to align with the interests of the elite, hoping to one day rise within the social structure, reinforcing existing power dynamics.

2.8 Social Hierarchies

Southern society exhibited marked social divisions, primarily based on wealth and race. The gulf between the wealthy planters and the lower classes could be stark, with many poorer whites lacking land, slaves, or significant power. In this context, poorer whites often adopted an attitude of deference towards the planter class, feeling compelled to uphold the social order that psychologically favored the elite—thus intertwining their fates and interests, despite the inequality. The complexity of these social relations was further complicated by the presence of free and enslaved blacks who navigated a treacherous social landscape marked by increasing racial tensions and legal restrictions that sought to codify and enforce racial distinctions.

2.9 The Challenge of the Great Awakening

The Great Awakening, a pivotal religious revival movement in the early 18th century, challenged established societal norms and power structures in the Southern colonies. It fostered a sense of spiritual equality among marginalized populations, including poorer whites and blacks, creating avenues for questioning the status quo of slavery. Although many leaders of the revival did not directly oppose slavery, the movement's emphasis on personal faith and equality began to sow seeds of dissent against established racial hierarchies and social injustices. The resultant social and spiritual upheavals contributed to heightened tensions over issues of race and inequality in the Southern colonies.

Conclusion: Southern Society at Mid-Eighteenth Century

By the mid-eighteenth century, the Southern colonies solidified their identities around a slave-based economy, marked by significant populations of both enslaved and free blacks alongside stark disparities among whites. The institution of slavery and the plantation economy pervaded virtually every aspect of life, creating deeply entrenched social orders that gleaned sustenance from oppression, feeding into rising conflicts both within the colonies and in eventual confrontations with external forces. As economic, cultural, and social tensions grew, the foundation was laid for future resistance to slavery and the fight for equality, setting the stage for monumental shifts in American history.

Bacon's Rebellion was an armed rebellion in 1676 led by Nathaniel Bacon against the rule of Governor William Berkeley in the Virginia Colony. The rebellion was fueled by the colonists' frustrations over Governor Berkeley's policies, which included a lack of protection from Native American attacks and limited opportunities for land and economic growth for poorer settlers. Bacon and his followers, comprising both indentured servants and enslaved Africans, demanded harsher actions against Native Americans and greater access to land. The rebellion highlighted the growing divide between wealthy landowners and poorer settlers, and it led to a shift in colonial policies, including the eventual move towards a racially based system of slavery as elite landowners sought to prevent further alliances between poor whites and enslaved blacks.

Differences Between French, Spanish, and English Colonies:

  • Colonial Focus and Economy:

    • French Colonies: Focused on fur trading, fishery, and relatively sparse settlement; they fostered trade with Native Americans and often formed alliances, particularly in Canada and the Mississippi River valley.

    • Spanish Colonies: Established primarily for mineral wealth and agriculture (sugar, cotton). Spain implemented a system of encomienda, granting settlers land and the right to enslave Native Americans for labor.

    • English Colonies: Developed a mix of economies including agriculture (especially cash crops in Southern colonies), trade, and crafts. They often relied on indentured servitude and eventually racialized slavery.

  • Relations with Native Americans:

    • French: Generally more cooperative; often engaged in trade and formed alliances with Native tribes. Examples include their participation in the fur trade and military alliances.

    • Spanish: Tended to be more oppressive, often enslaving indigenous populations and converting them to Christianity, causing significant disruptions to native societies.

    • English: Varied greatly; some colonies developed cordial relations while others engaged in violent conflicts (e.g., King Philip's War); English expansion often led to dispossession and conflict.

  • Administrative Structure:

    • French: Centralized governance with appointments from France, emphasizing control from the monarchy.

    • Spanish: Also centralized but with a complex hierarchy of viceroys over extensive territories, often resulting in a heavy hand in local governance.

    • English: Varied significantly by colony; some were run by charter companies, some by proprietary owners, and some had more self-governed assemblies.

  • Religious Influence:

    • French: Strongly influenced by Catholicism, which played a significant role in governance, culture, and identity in the colonies.

    • Spanish: Catholicism was paramount, influencing both colonization practices and social norms.

    • English: Religious diversity; some colonies like Massachusetts were Puritan, while others were more tolerant (e.g., Pennsylvania, founded by Quakers).

  • Demographics:

    • French: Smaller, more scattered population largely based on fur trade.

    • Spanish: Significant presence in the Southwest, Florida, and along the Pacific Coast; mixed indigenous and European populations due to intermarriage.

    • English: Larger settler population, with waves of migration that led to denser settlements, especially in the Northeast and along the Atlantic coast.



When the Powhatan people refused to play the role desired by the English planters, the planters considered enslaving them. However, for four decades after 1607, the Chesapeake tribes were too well armed, too numerous, and too familiar with the countryside to be easily enslaved. The conflicts known as the 1622 and 1644 wars with the Powhatans convinced planters to drive them away from areas of English settlement.