793 to 796 IB Comtempt History
Nazi Electoral Surge (1930-1932)
1930 Election:
The Nazi Party made a dramatic breakthrough, winning 107 seats in the Reichstag, up from just 12 in the 1928 election. Their popular vote surged from 800,000 to 6.5 million.
Communists also made gains, increasing their seats from 54 to 77.
July 1932 Election:
The Nazis continued their rise, more than doubling their vote and securing 230 seats, becoming the largest single party in the Reichstag. However, due to Germany’s fragmented political landscape, they did not achieve an outright majority.
November 1932 Election:
In this election, the Nazis saw a slight decline, losing 2 million votes and dropping to 196 seats.
Communist support continued to increase, reaching 100 seats in the Reichstag.
This loss made Hitler fear his movement might be losing momentum, leading him to worry about his future political relevance.
Conservative Support for Hitler
Support from Conservative Elites:
Despite the temporary Nazi setbacks in late 1932, several conservative groups began to see Hitler as a useful political tool.
These included old aristocrats, Junker landowners, army officers, and industrialists like the Rhineland steel magnates.
This group saw Hitler’s popularity with the masses as an opportunity to channel public discontent in their favor. They believed they could control Hitler and use him to their advantage.
Nazi Funding:
A portion of Nazi funds came from these conservative and nationalist sources, who saw in Hitler a solution to the increasing social and political unrest in Germany.
Chancellorship and Power Struggle (1932-1933)
Von Papen and von Schleicher:
After the resignation of Heinrich Brüning in June 1932, Franz von Papen led a nationalist cabinet backed by General Kurt von Schleicher, one of the influential figures in the German army.
In December 1932, Schleicher forced Papen to step down and took over as chancellor, but his term was short-lived as he also resigned within a month.
Hitler Becomes Chancellor (January 30, 1933):
Both von Papen and von Schleicher, each hoping to control Hitler, convinced President Paul von Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as chancellor.
On January 30, 1933, Adolf Hitler was legally appointed chancellor of Germany in a coalition government with other Nationalist allies, who assumed they would share power with the Nazis.
The Reichstag Fire and Nazi Consolidation of Power
Reichstag Fire:
In February 1933, just a week before the elections, the Reichstag building (parliament) was set on fire.
The Nazis blamed the Communists, although no concrete evidence linked them to the fire. The incident was used to stoke fears of a communist revolution.
Suppression of Civil Liberties:
Exploiting the Red Scare that followed the fire, Hitler’s government suspended freedom of speech and the press, allowing them to control public opinion.
The Brownshirts (Nazi paramilitary forces) were unleashed to intimidate voters, and the political atmosphere was deeply repressive leading up to the election.
March 1933 Election:
Even with these oppressive tactics, the Nazis secured 44% of the vote, still falling short of a majority.
However, with their Nationalist allies, the Nazis gained a slim majority of 52% in the Reichstag.
Following this, Hitler declared a national emergency, and a weakened Reichstag, excluding Communist deputies, voted to grant him dictatorial powers.
The Nazi State: The Third Reich
Hitler’s "Third Reich" Vision:
Hitler referred to his regime as the Third Reich, positioning it as the successor to the First Reich (the Holy Roman Empire) and the Second Reich (the German Empire under Bismarck).
He proclaimed that the Third Reich would last a thousand years and would represent the true destiny of the German people.
Führer and Absolute Authority:
Hitler adopted the title Führer (Leader), asserting that he represented the absolute sovereignty of the German nation.
He claimed that Western concepts like democracy, parliamentarianism, and liberalism were alien to Germany, labeling them as Jewish inventions meant to weaken the state.
Anti-Semitism and the Exclusion of Jews
Racial Science and Anti-Semitism:
The Nazi regime began implementing extreme anti-Semitic policies almost immediately. Jews were classified as non-Aryans, and anyone with one Jewish grandparent was considered Jewish.
Jews were systematically driven from public office, the civil service, teaching, and other professional roles.
Nuremberg Laws (1935):
The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 deprived Jews of citizenship rights and banned intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews, further cementing their status as an excluded and persecuted minority in Nazi Germany.
Key Takeaways:
Electoral Success and Nazi Power Grab:
The Nazi Party experienced a meteoric rise from 12 seats in 1928 to 230 in 1932. Despite temporary losses, Hitler’s political positioning was solidified when conservative elites helped place him as chancellor in January 1933.
Misjudgment by Conservative Elites:
Aristocrats and industrialists believed they could control Hitler, but they severely underestimated his ambitions, which led to the Nazi consolidation of power.
Reichstag Fire and Election Manipulation:
The Reichstag Fire provided the Nazis with a pretext to suspend civil liberties and intimidate voters. Hitler’s use of fear tactics and propaganda allowed him to manipulate the March 1933 elections.
The Nazi State and Anti-Semitism:
Hitler’s Third Reich was built on anti-Semitic policies, claiming Jews were responsible for Germany’s misfortunes. The Nuremberg Laws formalized the exclusion and persecution of Jews, laying the foundation for later atrocities.
These notes encapsulate Hitler’s final political maneuvering to become chancellor, the consolidation of Nazi power, and the systematic persecution of Jews that followed.
Kristallnacht: The "Night of Broken Glass" (November 9, 1938)
Event and Trigger:
Kristallnacht marked a major escalation in Nazi anti-Semitic violence across Germany.
The violent attacks were triggered when a 17-year-old Polish-Jewish student in Paris, angered by his family’s mistreatment, shot and killed a German diplomatic official at the German Embassy.
Nazi-Orchestrated Violence:
Storm Troopers (SA) unleashed coordinated violence in cities throughout Germany, targeting Jewish businesses, shops, and synagogues.
This "night of broken glass" saw widespread vandalism, looting, and arson, with shattered windows across Jewish neighborhoods symbolizing the event.
Thousands of Jews were beaten, and 30,000 were arrested and sent to concentration camps.
Governmental Action and Fines:
Nazi Party and government leaders capitalized on the violence, claiming control over the SA and using anti-Semitism to justify broader suppression.
The government imposed a billion-mark fine on the Jewish community, accusing them of "provoking" the violence.
To increase the economic burden on Jews, the government also confiscated insurance payments for property damage.
Flight and Refuge:
Jewish families who attempted to flee Germany in the aftermath faced restricted options, as many nations, including most of Europe and the United States, had closed their borders to Jewish refugees.
Kristallnacht foreshadowed the later, more systematic destruction of Jews across Europe, culminating in the Holocaust, which would result in the death of six million Jews.
Totalitarian Order and Anti-Semitic Ideology
Foreshadowing the Holocaust:
Though Kristallnacht resembled older-style pogroms, it demonstrated the Nazi government’s increasing commitment to an organized, state-supported campaign against Jews.
This escalation pointed toward the systematic annihilation of European Jews during the Holocaust through state-organized mechanisms.
Totalitarian State Vision:
Nazi ideology promoted the idea of a monolithic, totalitarian state, with Germany as a unified entity where individuals lost any separate identity or structure.
In this vision, Germany ceased to exist as a society of individuals; instead, it was a single entity dominated by the totalitarian power of the Nazi Party, characterized by absolute control over all aspects of life, including racial policy.
These notes highlight the escalation of Nazi anti-Semitic policies with Kristallnacht, the resulting impact on the Jewish population, and the framework of totalitarian control that enabled this violent state-orchestrated persecution.
Centralization and Totalitarian Control
Abolition of Federalism:
The Nazi regime abolished federal structures within Germany, removing the autonomy of states like Prussia and Bavaria. All political power was centralized under the Nazi government, eliminating regional independence.
One-Party State and Purge of the SA:
By 1934, the Nazis had dissolved all political parties except the Nazi Party itself.
On June 30, 1934—known as the Night of the Long Knives—Hitler ordered a violent purge against the Brownshirt (SA) leadership. Leaders representing the "social revolutionary" faction of the movement were accused of plotting against him and were executed. This consolidated Hitler’s control by removing potential rivals within his party.
Gestapo and People’s Courts:
The Gestapo (Geheime Staatspolizei), or secret police, was established to suppress dissent.
People’s Courts were created to eliminate judicial independence, punishing anyone whose ideas conflicted with those of the Nazi state.
Thousands were sent to concentration camps without trial or sentence, where individuals could be detained indefinitely.
Coordinating German Society under Nazi Ideology
Religious Suppression and Indoctrination:
Churches, both Protestant and Catholic, were "coordinated" with the regime, preventing clergy from openly opposing Nazi policies.
International religious ties were discouraged, and efforts were made to keep children out of religious schools.
The government promoted pagan worship of old Teutonic gods and glorified Nazism and its Führer as the new national religion.
Nazi Youth Organizations, schools, and universities were heavily involved in indoctrinating youth, promoting loyalty to Hitler and Nazi ideals.
Labor Control and National Labor Front:
Independent labor unions were banned and replaced with the National Labor Front, a state-controlled labor organization.
Strikes were prohibited, and under the "leadership principle," employers were given authority as “Führers” within their workplaces, although they remained under government supervision.
Economic Policies and Autarky
Public Works and Employment:
The Nazis launched extensive public works projects, including reforestation, swamp drainage, housing development, and superhighway construction.
A massive rearmament program absorbed the unemployed, virtually eliminating unemployment in Nazi Germany.
Though labor’s share of national income decreased, the Strength Through Joy program provided entertainment, vacations, and travel opportunities for workers with limited means.
Industrial Control and Private Ownership:
The state took extensive control over industry but allowed private ownership to remain.
In 1936, the Nazi regime introduced a Four-Year Plan to accelerate economic development and prepare Germany for war.
The goal of the plan was autarky (economic self-sufficiency), aiming for Germany to reduce dependency on foreign trade.
Substitute Products:
German scientists focused on developing synthetic substitutes for materials that typically required imports. Innovations included artificial rubber, plastics, and synthetic textiles to reduce reliance on imported raw materials.
Nazi Economic Expansionism and Bilateral Trade Agreements
Economic Autarky and European Dependence:
The Nazi regime aimed to dominate European trade by establishing a network of bilateral trade agreements. This plan assured Germany’s dominance in production and wealth, relegating neighboring nations to subordinate roles in trade.
This approach ignored the economic interdependence of Europe, where regions relied on each other for resources.
Economic Imperialism and Expansion:
Where economic control failed, Germany planned to assert dominance through conquest and war.
By the late 1930s, Germany had become a disciplined war machine, with military preparations bolstered by nationalist fervor.
Totalitarian Society and Militarization
State Propaganda and Public Enthusiasm:
Nazi propaganda maintained mass public support through grand rallies and spectacles, showcasing Germany’s supposed power and unity.
Popular slogans, such as “Today Germany, tomorrow the whole world,” reflected the regime's ambitions for global dominance.
Nazi War Machine:
The totalitarian structure of Nazi Germany turned the state into a unified and militarized entity, prepared to support Hitler in expanding German territory and influence beyond Europe.
Key Takeaways:
Centralized Power:
Nazi Germany eliminated regional autonomy, established a one-party state, and suppressed opposition through violent purges and the Gestapo, consolidating Hitler’s absolute control.
Social and Economic Control:
Nazi policies permeated every aspect of German life, from religion and youth education to labor control and the economy. Public works projects and the militarization of industry created jobs and fostered loyalty to the regime.
Economic Expansionism:
The Nazis pursued autarky while using trade agreements to dominate Europe economically. Where peaceful expansion failed, they prepared to achieve their goals through military conquest.
These notes outline Nazi Germany’s transformation into a totalitarian state, with centralized control over political, social, and economic life, preparing for a militarized and expansionist future.
Origins and Characteristics of Totalitarianism
Emergence and Ideological Background:
Totalitarianism emerged notably in the Bolshevik Revolution and later Nazi Germany, where individual liberty was denied to maintain absolute control.
Although Mussolini was the first to use and promote the term "totalitarian," his Fascist regime did not reach the fully encompassing scope seen in the Soviet and Nazi states.
Soviet vs. Nazi Totalitarianism:
Soviet Totalitarianism:
Initially, the Soviet regime promoted proletarian dictatorship as a temporary phase, emphasizing class struggle and rejecting individual glorification.
It adopted a democratic-sounding constitution and opposed racism, officially supporting the working class worldwide rather than nationalistic fervor.
Over time, the Soviet state grew increasingly indistinguishable from Nazi totalitarianism, adopting Stalinist personality cults, nationalism, and harsh punishment, including sending many to labor camps.
Nazi Totalitarianism:
The Nazi regime was explicitly nationalistic and anti-Semitic, centering around Hitler’s glorification and aiming for ethnic purity and expansionism.
Historical Roots of Totalitarianism
Long-Term State Development:
Since the Middle Ages, the state progressively gained authority over legal systems, military, taxes, church affairs, economic policy, and education.
World War I accelerated the state’s control, setting the stage for 20th-century totalitarianism, which pushed state sovereignty to extremes.
Rejection of Classical Liberalism:
Totalitarianism rejected classical liberalism, which valued individual autonomy and rational freedom. Instead, it promoted an organic theory of society, where individuals were seen as cells within a larger societal body, with no independent existence outside the nation or state.
Nationalism and Anti-Christian Sentiment:
Totalitarian states drew on exaggerated historic nationalism, positioning the state as a "living organism" that subsumed individual rights.
Many totalitarian regimes not only clashed with but were openly anti-Christian, attempting to replace religion with their own state philosophy or ideology.
Ideological Theories within Totalitarianism
Collective Identity Over Individualism:
Individuals were viewed as insignificant outside their social or national group and were seen as material to be shaped by the larger body (nation, class, or party).
Marxism imposed a similar collective identity, where individuals were subordinated to their class and were essentially "cells" within a greater societal organism.
Rejection of Independent Thought:
Under totalitarian ideology, individual reason and freedom were meaningless. Only the collective will, represented by the state or class, was valid.
Science and knowledge were seen as products of specific societies or classes, leading to ideas like "Nazi science," distinct from Western, democratic, or "Jewish" science, and Soviet science, aligned with dialectical materialism.
Key Takeaways:
Totalitarian Evolution:
Totalitarianism took shape after WWI, rooted in the historical growth of state power, and diverged into distinct ideologies in the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany.
Collective Over Individual Rights:
Totalitarian regimes viewed individuals as cells within a larger social body, discarding personal freedoms in favor of absolute control by the state or nation.
Nationalist and Anti-Liberal Philosophy:
Emphasizing national unity or class loyalty, these regimes rejected liberalism’s focus on individual autonomy and imposed a collective ideology on all aspects of life, including science and culture.
These notes capture the ideological roots, distinguishing characteristics, and ultimate aims of totalitarianism as a modern political phenomenon, contrasting Nazi and Soviet models within the historical development of state power.