Hegemonic Masculinity and Beyond: An Overview of Social Science and Interdisciplinary Research on the Manosphere

Abstract

Overview of 25 highly cited studies on the manosphere published between 2016 and 2021.
The manosphere comprises anti-feminist networks and communities across digital media platforms.
Gained public attention due to violent attacks against women, including:
- Isla Vista shooting (2014) - 14 killed.
- Toronto van attack (2018) - 10 killed.
Increased media coverage and academic interest in anti-feminist movements following these incidents.
Calls for deeper investigation into participants and their motivations for engagement in the manosphere.
Masculinity scholars focus on men’s adherence to dominant masculinity norms to explain participation in manosphere.

The Manosphere

Defined as a collection of diverse online communities.
Members believe women, particularly feminists, are responsible for men's loss of power and status in Western societies.
- Use of violent language and targeted harassment against women as observed by scholars (e.g., Van Valkenburgh 2018; Ging 2017).
Notable violent incidents linked to manosphere ideologies:
- Isla Vista shooting (2014)
- Oregon college campus shooting (2015)
- Parkland high school shooting (2018)
- Toronto van attack (2018)
- Murder of a female spa worker in Toronto (2020) - first crime linked to incel ideologies prosecuted as terrorism in Canada.

Theoretical Framework

Connell and Messerschmidt’s concept of hegemonic masculinity (2005) serves as the main theoretical framework for manosphere studies.
- Hierarchy of masculinities and femininities exists in Western societies, with hegemonic masculinity at the top.
- Hegemonic masculinity maintains dominance by subordinating other masculinities and all femininities.
Emphasis on men’s experiences of masculinity provides valuable insights but may narrow understanding.
A call for further research that goes beyond masculinity as a driver of radicalization.

Structure of the Chapter

Two Parts:
1. Overview of 25 cited studies on the manosphere.
2. Examination of women’s groups within the manosphere, focusing on media coverage to highlight overlooked areas.
25 texts selected from English-language publications (2016-2021), focusing on Western contexts.
Research specifically looking for women's communities, such as “femcel” and “feMRA.”

1. Academic Studies of Men’s Manosphere Communities

1.1 Men’s Rights Activists (MRAs)

1.1.1 Context

MRAs viewed as a continuation of earlier men’s groups (1970s) that emerged around feminist contexts (Carrigan et al. 1985; Kimmel 2017).
Split in men’s groups between pro-feminist and those seeing men and women equally oppressed occurred in the 1980s.
- MRAs emerged as antifeminists, believing feminism caused white male oppression in America.
The resurgence of MRAs noted in the 2000s, largely online, linking institutionalized women’s rights to men’s power loss.
Critics point out pro-feminist bias and a lack of empirical evidence in historical accounts (Ben Salah et al. 2017).

1.1.2 Academic Studies

Research often focuses on discursive representations of masculinity and feminism on MRA websites.
- Schmitz and Kazyak (2016): Examined masculinity representations on MRA websites, finding two archetypes:
- Cyber lads: Rigid masculinity views, blame feminism for oppression, view women as sexual commodities.
- Virtual victims: Men focus on lack of support, using feminist language to seem more legitimate.
- Concluded MRA websites promote divisive gender relations.
- Gotell and Dutton (2016): Ethnography of prominent MRA websites indicating strategic shifts in messages, focusing now more on young men’s victimization by sexual politics.
- Highlighted the role of female MRAs in the discourse.
- Starr (2017): Analysis of memes in MRAs’ subreddit; depicted men as victimized and feminists as oppressors, suggesting online mobilization potential.
- Liu (2021): Investigated MRAsians (Asian American MRAs) highlighting critiques of women's representation and harassment of feminists.

1.2 Incels

1.2.1 Context

The term ‘incel’ originated from a blog in 1997 by Alana, showcasing individuals’ challenges in forming romantic relationships.
Modern incel communities largely dominated by men and characterized by a sense of entitlement to sexual relationships and resentment towards women.
- Belief in social hierarchy based on appearance (lookism).
Increase in violence linked to incel ideologies resulting in mass murders (Williams and Arntfield 2020).
Banned from Reddit due to policy violations on hate speech.

1.2.2 Academic Studies

Williams and Arntfield (2020): Analyzed writings of incel offenders to reveal a belief in entitlement to female relationships.
Sugiura (2021): Comprehensive study on incel communities examining motivations and emotional distress in incels.
Papadamou et al. (2020): Studied how YouTube’s recommendation algorithm may direct viewers towards incel-related content, contributing to radicalization.

1.3 Pick Up Artists (PUAs)

1.3.1 Context

PUAs involved in strategizing seduction and were highly prominent on Reddit from 2011-2012.
Represented in media through films and reality shows which often characterize their behaviors.
Techniques used by PUAs often cross boundaries of consent, such as negating confidence to achieve seduction.

1.3.2 Academic Studies

O’Neill (2018): Year-long study on PUAs found significant harassment towards female trainers and emphasized transactional relationships.
Meszaros (2021): Linkages between PUAs and international dating industry, echoing similar objectifying views on women.

1.4 The Red Pill

1.4.1 Context

Red pill philosophy derived from The Matrix, positing that feminism misrepresents reality and exploits men.
Taking the red pill symbolizes awareness of feminist deceit and acceptance of traditional gender roles.

1.4.2 Academic Studies

Van Valkenburgh (2018): Explored red pill ideology through textual analysis, likening its beliefs to MRAs.
Dignam and Rohlinger (2019): Discussed political mobilization of r/TRP members influencing Trump’s election as a response to feminism.
Krendel (2020): Analyzed language used in TRP communities to dehumanize women and enact victim narratives for men.

1.5 Men Going Their Own Way (MGTOW)

1.5.1 Context

MGTOW emphasizes avoidance of relationships with women for personal growth, yet harbors similar misogynistic ideologies.

1.5.2 Academic Studies

Wright et al. (2020): Highlighted contradictions in MGTOW discussions, centering them on women and relationships despite professed separatism.
Lin (2017): Discussed MGTOW's homosocial dynamics and comparison to feminist discourse.

1.6 Overviews of the Manosphere

Overview Studies

Ging (2017): Applied Connell's theory to characterize types of masculinities in the manosphere, identifying five groups including MRAs and Gamers.
Jane (2017): Explored the transformed nature of cyberhate against women through the discussions within the manosphere.
Marwick and Caplan (2018): Tracked the usage of ‘misandry’ across digital spaces.
Ribeiro et al. (2021): Longitudinal study revealing growing violence and hostility towards women over time within the manosphere communities.

2 Women, Antifeminism, and the Manosphere

2.1 Women of the Manosphere in the Press

2.1.1 The Honey Badger Brigade

Group of female MRAs promoting antifeminist sanity through podcasts and media outreach.

2.1.2 Red Pill Women

Community for women rejecting feminism, claiming their femininity positions them against feminist narratives.

2.1.3 Femcels

Female version of incels, experiencing similar loneliness but focusing on self-reflection and external views.

2.2 Discussion

Calls for more scholarly research into women within the manosphere, particularly regarding motivations and psychological implications.

2.3 Conclusion

Current understanding of manosphere communities shows objectification and cyclical antifeminist sentiments prevalent.
Need to address women's participation to fully grasp drivers of radicalization beyond masculinity frustrations.

References

A comprehensive list of research articles, media articles, and publications relevant to the study of the manosphere and its associated communities.
Includes seminal works by authors such as Connell, Kimmel, and more recent studies analyzing the divisions and dynamics within these communities.