Detailed Study Notes on the Presidential Election of 1860 and the Civil War

Presidential Election of 1860

Context and Overview

The presidential election of 1860 was marked by a crowded field of candidates and significant issues surrounding slavery, sectionalism, and national unity. Abraham Lincoln emerged as a defining figure, branding himself as "the uncommon common man." In the wake of Andrew Jackson's election in 1828, political leaders distanced themselves from elite perceptions, seeking a relatable candidate profile. Lincoln's humble origins and his self-education positioned him within a narrative of authentic representation.

Lincoln's Background

Early Life and Education: Abraham Lincoln was born in a log cabin in Kentucky, experiencing poverty similar to that of Andrew Jackson. He was self-educated and became a lawyer, exhibiting a strong affinity for education and literature.
Family History: His grandfather was killed in a raid by Native Americans, an event witnessed by Lincoln's father. This trauma contributed to the family’s eventual relocation from Kentucky to Indiana, influenced by aspirations of land ownership and a desire to escape slavery.
Parental Influence: Lincoln's parents were Baptists who condemned drinking, dancing, and slavery, imparting strong moral values to their children.
Personal Tragedy: Lincoln's mother died of "milk sickness," a condition caused by consumption of dairy from cows that ingested poisonous plants. This incident deeply affected Lincoln during his formative years.
Marital Life: Lincoln's personal life included failed engagements, notably with Mary Todd, whom he eventually married and had four sons.

Political Career Prior to the Presidency

Congressional Experience: Lincoln served one term in Congress, known for his opposition to President Polk's assertions about Mexican attacks, and the proposal of the "spot resolution."
Senate Race of 1858: In an unsuccessful bid for the Senate against Stephen Douglas, Lincoln’s free soil ideology was exploited by Douglas to associate him with radical abolitionism, particularly through the lens of John Brown’s violent actions.

Campaign Strategies and Political Appeals

Northern Support: Lincoln sought to solidify his appeal in the North, especially among those ambivalent about slavery. He advocated for high protective tariffs, which would benefit northern manufacturing by increasing the import taxes on foreign goods.
Western Voters: He promoted federal homesteads for settlers in western territories, encouraging migration and land ownership.
Immigrant Appeal: Lincoln proposed more liberal pathways for naturalized immigrants, enhancing his support among these groups with the hope of family reunification in the U.S.
Infrastructure Funding: His support for federally funded public works projects also aimed to broaden his appeal across various constituencies.

Opposition Candidates and Their Stance on Slavery

Stephen Douglas: Aimed to position himself as a moderate on slavery, but his ambiguity left him vulnerable to criticism, causing a loss of support both in the North and among Southern voters.
John C. Breckinridge: Representing the South, he openly supported slavery as a positive good, garnering significant support from Southern voters.
John Bell: A constitutional unionist who attempted to remain neutral on slavery, advocating for deferral of the issue until tempers cooled down.

Sectional Divide in the Election

Each region identified distinct candidates as viable options: Lincoln and Douglas in the North; Breckinridge and Bell in the South. The North viewed Lincoln positively but lacked confidence in Douglas’ commitment to clear stances.
Lincoln reiterated his position on slavery, advocating for a free-soil ideology without support for abolition; this distinction led to misconceptions in the South regarding his true beliefs.

Election Results and Immediate Aftermath

Election Outcome: Lincoln, without receiving a majority, won with ~40% of the popular vote and a strong majority of electoral votes. Notably, Southern states had removed Lincoln's name from ballots, leading to claims that no Southerner had voted for him, although had the ballots been intact, he would likely have earned support.
Reactions to Lincoln's Victory: The apparent sectional split resulted in Southern leaders doubting their trust in Douglas. He recognized Lincoln’s victory and expressed intentions to preserve the Union, yet his effectiveness was compromised in a changing political landscape.

Secession of Southern States

Following Lincoln’s election, Southern states reacted by claiming secession from the Union, with South Carolina being the first on December 20, 1860, declaring their departure on grounds directly linked to slavery and its expansion.
Others Joining Secession: By February 1, 1861, six additional states followed suit, forming the Confederate States of America with Jefferson Davis as president, showcasing rapid political consolidation.

Buchanan’s Inaction

Presidential Response: James Buchanan's response to secession was marked by a lack of action, which many later criticized as a failure of leadership. He believed Southern states were bluffing and did not engage militarily to restore order.
Legal Perspectives: Lincoln asserted that individuals, not states, were in rebellion, maintaining that secession held no constitutional validity.

The Initial Phase of Civil War

Fort Sumter Situation: Tensions escalated when South Carolina confiscated federal installations, culminating in an aggressive standoff at Fort Sumter. Buchanan's administration chose to resupply the fort via a private vessel, leading to Confederate attacks.
Lack of Compromise Efforts: Concurrently, congressional proposals, such as the Kentucky amendment that would guarantee slavery forever in certain states, gained traction but ultimately were not realized.

Lincoln’s Inauguration and Immediate Actions

Lincoln’s inaugural address reiterated his stance regarding slavery and the discretion of federal authority over it, emphasizing his intent not to interfere with slavery where it was established.
Southern delegates withdrew from Congress, confirming their intent to secede and effectively precipitating the Civil War.

Military Leadership and Strategic Disadvantages

Robert E. Lee's Decision: Lincoln offered Lee command of Union forces, but Lee's loyalty to Virginia led him to reject the offer and instead accept command in the Confederacy.
South's Disadvantages: The South faced essential disadvantages including a lack of industrial capacity, a significantly smaller manpower pool, and insufficient infrastructure, further complicating their military campaign.

Conclusion and Strategic Outlook

The Civil War landscape was marked by stark divisions and misunderstandings surrounding leadership and intentions on both sides. Lincoln’s early responses to secession and the build-up to war were shaped by the complex political environment he inherited from Buchanan.