History of Medieval Historiography
Origins and Nomenclature of the Middle Ages
The concept of the Middle Ages originated during the era of Humanism (- centuries) as intellectuals and artists became aware that they were experiencing a period of significant cultural, moral, and aesthetic transformation. This newfound pride in their changing epoch led to various attitudes toward the preceding centuries, which were often labeled with terms such as media tempestas, media aetas, and medium aevum. Attitudes varied by region and ideology: French and German humanists did not view the Middle Ages negatively because they saw that period as the foundation of their respective nations. In contrast, German Protestant reformers criticized the era, emphasizing how the Church of Rome had significantly deviated from evangelical principles during that time. Discussion intensified during the century when Enlightenment thinkers (Illuminists) attacked medieval political and social institutions as lingering remnants of "barbarism." However, this polemical spirit also spurred rigorous historical research, with many scholars identifying the Middle Ages as the source of many modern characteristics.
Key Thinkers and the Secularization of History
Several influential scholars in the shaped the modern understanding of the medieval period. The Neapolitan philosopher Giambattista Vico, in his work Scienza nuova, identified the Middle Ages as an era defined by a specific mental framework and unique social and political institutions. Ludovico Antonio Muratori, a historian from Modena, connected Enlightenment thought with medieval culture, noting a distinct continuity in the Italian cultural tradition. Francois-Marie Arouet Voltaire advocated for a laic (secular) interpretation of history, positing that a historian's primary duty is to highlight the specific contributions made by humanity during various historical epochs. William Robertson, an English Protestant pastor, not only identified the major social transformations occurring after the year but also possessed a profound sense of historical continuity.
National Debates and the Role of the Papacy
In Germany, the -century shift moved beyond polemics; philosophers and writers began to see the Middle Ages as an era of spiritual serenity, while Christians viewed it as the period of Europe's creative awakening. Legal and economic historians identified it as the formative age of the German economy. In Italy, the historical debate focused on the struggle between "Latinità" (Latinity) and "Germanesimo" (Germanism), and the political impact of the Papacy. Niccolò Machiavelli famously argued that the Papacy was the primary obstacle to Italian unification. This sentiment was echoed by -century "Neo-Ghibelline" historians like Pietro Giannone, who viewed the Papacy's actions negatively, claiming it hindered unification by inviting foreign powers into the territory. Conversely, "Neo-Guelf" historians such as Alessandro Manzoni, Cesare Balbo, and Gino Capponi saw the medieval Papacy in a positive light, arguing it preserved the heritage of Rome and Latin culture. Benedetto Croce, a representative of the Catholic-liberal (Neo-Guelf) tradition, argued that while a unified Italy had never technically existed, the Popes had actively resisted foreign invaders and supported national leagues and the local Communes. By the end of the , the Middle Ages were being re-evaluated across Europe—including France and England—with thinkers emphasizing the era’s connection to emotion, irrationality, and faith.
19th and 20th Century Historiography: Positivism and Marxism
Historiography in the advanced through improved scientific and methodological research. Mid-century, Positivism rose to prominence, seeking an objective view of history that could only be provided by specialized historians rather than general thinkers or writers. The German historian Leopold Ranke adopted this approach, stripping away "Romantic interference" to reconstruct facts as they truly happened. Ranke introduced the principle that a source is most reliable when it is chronologically closest to the event, ensuring the chronicler is not biased by knowledge of future historical developments. Simultaneously, German research into legal and economic history expanded. Karl Marx, with his theory of historical materialism, provided a framework for economic development by identifying four fundamental modes of production: Asiatic, slave-based, feudal, and capitalist-bourgeois. According to Marx, the feudal mode of production specifically characterized the medieval economy. These theories influenced Italian historiography, leading to the creation of what Benedetto Croce called the "Economic-Legal School" (Scuola economico-giuridica), which focused on institutions such as Feudalism and the Communes.
The Economic-Legal School and 20th Century Philosophy
The Economic-Legal School in Italy branched into three distinct directions. The Florentine branch, led by Gaetano Salvemini, utilized sociological frameworks to study the conflict between landowners and the common people (popolani) in -century Florence. The Pisan branch, led by Gioacchino Volpe, rejected rigid economic systems in favor of viewing history as an interaction of diverse factors, focusing his studies on the Communes and heresies. The Catholic branch, represented by Niccolò Rodolico, merged Marxist interest in the lower classes with a Catholic sensibility. Parallel to these schools was a philosophical orientation toward medieval "Irrationalism," which was interpreted as a reflection of the value crisis following World War I. A symbolic text of this movement is Johan Huizinga’s work, The Autumn of the Middle Ages (L'Autunno del Medioevo), which depicts late medieval civilization as a culture in decline where humanity sought solace in elaborate rituals and ceremonies. Finally, the Belgian historian Henri Pirenne attempted to link historical research with philosophical inquiry, arguing that the birth of Europe was intrinsically tied to the expansion of Islam, which disrupted the Mediterranean unity previously established by the Romans.