Child Maltreatment Theories

Theories of Child Maltreatment

Various theories attempt to explain child maltreatment, applicable across its many forms. These include attachment theory, social learning theory (and intergenerational transmission of violence), general strain theory, self-control theory, filicide typology, and three-factor theory.

Attachment Theory

Bowlby (1973) defined attachment as behavior that helps a person maintain proximity to a stronger/wiser individual. Ainsworth et al. (1978) expanded this, categorizing attachment styles:

  1. Secure Attachment: Caregiver is attentive to the child's needs. Secure children balance exploration and dependency (Tarabulsy et al., 2008).

  2. Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Child avoids the caregiver and does not seek help with distress.

  3. Insecure-Ambivalent Attachment: Child shows resistance/conflict or excessive immaturity to gain attention (Tarabulsy et al., 2008).

  4. Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment: Child cannot depend on the caregiver for comfort; caregiver displays atypical responses and frightening behavior (Tarabulsy et al., 2008).

Maltreated children are more likely to exhibit insecure attachment, with disorganized attachment being most common (Barnett, Ganiban, & Cicchetti, 1999; Carlson et al., 1989; Cicchetti, Rogosch, & Toth, 2006; Lyons-Ruth, Connell, Grunebaum, & Botein, 1990; Zeanah & Smyke, 2005).

Social Learning Theory and Intergenerational Transmission of Violence

Social learning theory posits that individuals learn through modeling, observation, and cognitive processes (Bandura, 1977). Akers (1973) applies this to crime, while Daigle & Muftić (2016) apply it to child maltreatment, suggesting abusive behavior is learned.

Parents who abuse/neglect their children may do so because they experienced or witnessed it themselves (Daigle & Muftić, 2016). Widom (1989a) notes a higher likelihood of abuse by parents if they were abused as children. This is the basis of the intergenerational transmission of violence (cycle of violence). Children exposed to violence may view it as acceptable. Abused/neglected children have a higher risk of becoming criminals, delinquents, and violent. Individuals with a history of child maltreatment were three times more likely to perpetrate child abuse (Milaniak & Widom, 2015).

However, Widom (1989b) clarifies that not every abused/neglected child becomes criminal/violent. Intervention and recognition can reduce these chances (Widom & Maxfield, 2001). Protective factors like high intelligence, demographic characteristics (e.g., being White or older), or mentorship can mitigate the impact of maltreatment and future violence (Wright, Turanovic, O’Neal, Morse, & Booth, 2019).

General Strain Theory

Abuse/neglect is a severe strain that can lead to delinquency (Agnew, 2001; 2013). Strains are unjust, high in magnitude, associated with low social control, and create pressure for criminal coping (Agnew, 2001). Iratzoqui (2018) and Watts & McNulty (2013) use this to understand the impact of child abuse on delinquency. Iratzoqui (2018) found that abused/neglected children were more likely to engage in substance abuse during adolescence. Watts and McNulty (2013) found individuals who experienced physical or sexual child abuse, particularly by a parent or caretaker, were more likely to engage in adolescent delinquency.

Self-Control Theory

Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) self-control theory suggests low self-control stems from the absence of nurturance, discipline, or training (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990). Poor parenting leading to maltreatment can hinder the development of self-control, possibly causing delinquency (Rebellon & Van Gundy, 2005). Low self-control, due to child abuse, can increase the likelihood of delinquency. Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) outline three conditions for proper parenting:

  1. Nurturing (attachment)

  2. Watching (governance)

  3. Acknowledging and punishing delinquent behavior (discipline)

Thus, low self-control in delinquents may result from prior maltreatment.

Resnick’s Filicide Typology

Filicide, the murder of a child by a parent or caregiver, accounts for approximately 2.5% (around 500 arrests) of all homicide arrests annually in the United States (Resnick, 2016). Infanticide (killing a child under one year) and neonaticide (killing within the first 24 hours) fall under filicide. Resnick (1969) created a five-category typology based on cases from 1757-1967:

  1. Altruistic Filicide: Parent kills the child believing it's in the child's best interest. This includes killing due to the parent’s suicidal thoughts (believing the world is too cruel) or to alleviate the child’s suffering (e.g., a disability) (West, 2007).

  2. Acutely Psychotic Filicide: Murder due to the parent's psychotic mental illness. Example: Andrea Yates, who drowned her five children and claimed it saved them from eternal damnation (West, 2007).

  3. Unwanted Child Filicide: Parent kills a child because they didn't want the child.

  4. Accidental Filicide: Unintentional killing due to abuse, including Munchausen syndrome by proxy (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).

  5. Spouse Revenge Filicide: Killing the child to get revenge on the other parent (West, 2007).

Three-Factor Theory

Lesnik-Oberstein, Cohen, and Koers (1982) developed a three-factor theory on the cause of physical abuse, and psychological/emotional abuse. Lesnik-Oberstein, Koers, and Cohen (1995) proposed that the risk of maltreatment increases when these factors are present:

  1. High level of parental hostility

  2. Low level of parental inhibition of overt aggression

  3. Focusing parental aggression on the child

The type of abuse depends on the ratio of factor one and factor two. A higher ratio increases the likelihood of physical abuse; a lower ratio increases the risk of psychological/emotional abuse. A low ratio of parental hostility and parental inhibition means lower child abuse risk. Other factors linked to these include lack of coping skills, affectionless upbringing, high stress/strain, past abuse, substance abuse, and low empathy (Lesnik-Oberstein et al., 1995).

Implications for Texas

Theoretical frameworks help understand the causes/effects of maltreatment, applicable across physical, sexual, psychological abuse, and neglect. Multiple theories are needed for a comprehensive understanding. The Texas Family Code mandates that educational, medical, law enforcement, legal, and social work professionals report suspected maltreatment (Fam. Code § 261.101). Understanding these frameworks enables institutions (schools, family violence organizations, CPS agencies) to enact laws/regulations, encourage reporting, and provide training/prevention.