Grammar Notes - Page by Page (Linking Verbs, Prepositions, Diagramming, and Verb Agreement)

Linking Verbs (Page 13)

• Verbs do more than show action: they can also express a state of being. Linking verbs connect a subject to a subject complement (either a predicate nominative, a noun, or a predicate adjective).
• Forms of the be-verb (linking verbs) include all the listed forms:
  $ext{be, being, am, is, are, was, were, shall be, will be, has been, have been, had been, shall have been, will have been, should be, would be, can be, could be, should have been, would have been, could have been}$
• African American vernacular note: common spoken form like "I'd be here" is not standard formal English. In standard formal English, you would say: "I am here." The lecture ties this to historical forms in the King James Bible (thou, shouldest, wouldest, mayest, etc.). The King James Bible is referenced as an influence on older/less formal variants.
• Objective: learn which be-forms are appropriate in standard formal English and when linking verbs are used (not to express action, but state/identity).
• Function of linking verbs: they connect the subject to a complement, not to an action. Examples:
  • The hotthorn bean and the blue beech are members of the birch family. Here, "are" links the subject to the predicate nominative "members".
  • The hardwood of the red cedar smells good. Here, "smells" is the linking verb linking the subject to the predicate adjective "good".
• Subject-verb agreement with linking verbs:
  • Singluar subject → singular form of the verb; plural subject → plural form.
  • Example discussion: "The candle smells good" (singular subject/candle → smells) vs "The candles smell good" (plural subject/candles → smell).
  • Note the common pitfall: English verbs in the present tense require adding -s for third-person singular (e.g., goes vs go). The irregularity of some verbs (e.g., past tense forms like "went" from "go") is discussed as part of why rules have exceptions.
• Practical tip: learning subject-verb agreement requires practice and identifying sentence parts. Return to grammar chapters as needed; expect many exceptions in English.
• Variants and exceptions: there are exceptions to the general -s rule for verbs; memorize notable irregularities when needed. For example:
  • Present tense: "they go" vs "he goes" (added -es or -s for third-person singular depending on the verb endings).
  • Past tense: "goes" → past is "went" (irregular). This reflects historical roots in Old English.
• Important reminder: in formal writing, rely on standard forms (e.g., "I am here" instead of dialect variants) unless quoting or intentionally using dialect for literary effect.

Prepositions (Page 21)

• Definition: Prepositions express spatial, temporal, or other relationships between words in a sentence and always take an object following them.
• Key property: All prepositions require an object (a noun or pronoun) after them. Examples of common prepositions include beside, in, front of, around, under, over, etc. The exact list isn’t memorized by the teacher, but the function is.
• Examples from the lesson:
  • I am standing beside the desk.
  • I am standing in front of the desk.
  • I am walking around the desk.
  • I am going under the desk.
• Important concept: the object of a preposition is the closest noun to the preposition in the sentence. Objects cannot be subjects.
• Practical exercise example: One of my Dalmatians has won many blue ribbons.
  • Analyze the sentence by recognizing the preposition "of" in the phrase "one of my Dalmatians".
  • The object of the preposition "of" is "Dalmatians" (in the objective case). Since it’s the object of the preposition, it cannot be the subject.
  • Therefore, the actual subject is the pronoun "one" (singular), not "Dalmatians".
  • The main verb is the auxiliary "has" (part of the verb phrase "has won"); the main verb is "won". The direct object of "won" is "ribbons" (modified by the determiner "many" and the adjective "blue").
• Diagramming takeaway: using diagrams helps reveal subject, verb, and object relationships, especially when prepositional phrases intervene between subject and verb.
• A note on sentence structure with prepositional phrases: you should not separate the subject from the verb with a single comma; you can set off nonessential prepositional information with two commas, but not with one. This is important for correct punctuation in written sentences.
• Additional practice: there is a separate handout on eight basic comma rules that can help with formal writing and punctuation decisions.

Grammar Two: Sentence Diagramming and Complex Structures (Pages 35–36)

• Purpose of diagramming: a tool to visualize how words in a sentence relate to each other, reinforcing the roles of subject, verb, objects, and modifiers.
• Example 1: One of my Dalmatians has won many blue ribbons.
  • Verb phrase: has won (auxiliary "has" + main verb "won").
  • Subject: One (singular; the phrase "of my Dalmatians" is a prepositional phrase that does not determine the subject).
  • Prepositional phrase: "of my Dalmatians"; within this phrase, the object of the preposition is "Dalmatians" (in the objective case).
  • Direct object: ribbons (modified by the adjectives "blue" and the determiner "many").
  • The speaker uses the diagram to show elimination: a direct analysis would be: One (subject) has won (verb) many blue ribbons (direct object). The plural noun "Dalmatians" cannot be the subject because it is the object of the preposition in the phrase and not the subject.
• Example 2: The bus with the skiers will leave for the lodge in three minutes.
  • Verb: will leave (future tense; the helping form "will" plus main verb "leave").
  • Subject: The bus. Despite proximity of
  • The noun closest to the verb is not necessarily the subject (skepticism about assuming "skiers" is the subject because of proximity). The word that signals the subject is the subject itself: the bus.
  • Prepositional phrases:
  • "with the skiers": preposition "with" taking object "skiers" (object is the closest noun to the preposition).
  • "for the lodge": preposition "for" taking object "lodge".
  • "in three minutes": preposition "in" taking object "minutes"; determiner "three" and the article "the" describe "minutes".
• Key observational rules highlighted in this section:
  • The subject is not always the noun closest to the verb; prepositional phrases can separate the subject from the verb and still be part of the sentence structure.
  • When analyzing, identify the verb (including helping verbs), then locate the subject, then determine objects (direct and indirect) and the role of any prepositional phrases.
  • The object of a preposition is typically the closest noun to the preposition.
• Imperative sentences and questions: a quick recap
  • Imperative sentence: the subject is often implied as "you" (e.g., Close the door.). The sentence expresses a command.
  • In questions, word order often changes (e.g., Why are you leaving? vs You leaving?). The sentence may still express a complete thought but with inverted order.
  • Tone/inflection in speech can signal questions in everyday talk, but formal writing should spell out the sentence in canonical order when not quoting speech.
• Compound subjects and compound verbs
  • Compound subjects share a single verb: Mister Holmes and his friends went on a fishing trip. Here, both subjects share the same verb went.
  • Compound verbs can exist with a single subject: On our last trip to Europe, we sailed on a freighter and saved a great deal of money. The sentence has one subject (we) performing two verbs (sailed, saved).
• Complements and linking vs action verbs
  • Linking verbs require a predicate nominative (a noun) or a predicate adjective to complete the thought. Examples: The subject is described or restated.
  • Action verbs often take a direct object; some also take indirect objects. Examples:
  • The dentist cleaned my teeth. Here, "dentist" is the subject, "cleaned" is the verb, and "teeth" is the direct object (my teeth shows possession).
  • The dentist gave me a cleaning. This shows both a direct object ("a cleaning") and an indirect object ("me"). The indirect object is the recipient of what is given.
• Practical application: when you encounter sentences with multiple verbs, objects, and prepositional phrases, diagramming helps you parse roles and relationships more clearly. Expect homework with substantial practice on these concepts.

Imperatives, Questions, and Sentence Type Notes

• Imperative mood: the command form where the understood subject is "you". Example: Close the door. The implied subject is you; there is no explicit subject.
• Questions and word order: declarative order is typically Subject-Verb-Complement. In questions, the order often inverts (Verb-Subject-Complement). Tone or punctuation may indicate a question in spoken language; formal writing requires explicit wording.
• Special note on pronoun cases and subject vs object: the case of pronouns matters with prepositional phrases (e.g., object case used after prepositions is not a subject).

Practical Takeaways for Exam Preparation

• Remember the core function of linking verbs: connect the subject to a predicate nominative or predicate adjective, not indicating action.
• Be aware of the many forms of the be-verb and their significance in forming various tenses.
• Practice subject-verb agreement by identifying the subject first, then selecting the correct verb form. Watch for third-person singular endings and irregular verbs.
• Prepositions always take an object; never let a prepositional phrase mislead you into thinking the noun inside it is the subject.
• In sentence diagramming, use the process: identify the verb (including auxiliaries), determine the subject, locate the direct object, identify indirect objects, and place prepositional phrases correctly by linking their objects to the prepositions.
• For writing, avoid placing single commas between a subject and its verb; you may use commas to isolate nonessential prepositional phrases with two commas, not one.
• Be prepared to convert spoken (informal) forms into standard formal English forms when appropriate for exams or essays (e.g., replace dialect forms with standard equivalents).
• Recognize that English has many exceptions; do not expect every rule to apply universally. Memorize key irregularities and practice regularly to reinforce patterns.

Quick Reference: Example Sentences from the Lesson

• The hotthorn bean and the blue beech are members of the birch family. (Linking verb: are; predicate nominative: members)
• The hardwood of the red cedar smells good. (Linking verb: smells; predicate adjective: good)
• The candle smells good. vs The candles smell good. (Subject-verb agreement with singular vs plural subjects)
• One of my Dalmatians has won many blue ribbons. (Subject: One; verb: has won; object: ribbons; prepositional phrase: of my Dalmatians; object of preposition: Dalmatians)
• The bus with the skiers will leave for the lodge in three minutes. (Subject: bus; verb: will leave; prepositional phrases: with the skiers, for the lodge, in three minutes)
• The dentist cleaned my teeth. (Subject: dentist; verb: cleaned; direct object: teeth)
• The dentist gave me a cleaning. (Direct object: a cleaning; indirect object: me)