Ottoman State and Europe ($$1774-1914$$): Exhaustive Study Notes

Chronological Timeline of Ottoman and European Political Developments ($1774-1914$)

The period between $1774$ and $1914$ was a transformative era for the Ottoman State, marked by significant treaties, داخلی uprisings, and shifting international alliances. The timeline begins with the Annexation of Crimea by Russia in $1783$, followed by the global impact of the French Revolution in $1789$. Key diplomatic milestones include the Treaty of Jassy (Yaş Antlaşması) in $1792$, the Serbian Uprising in $1804$, and the Congress of Vienna in $1815$. The $19\text{th}$ century saw major internal conflicts and external pressures, including the Greek (Rum) Uprising in $1821$, the Treaty of Edirne in $1829$, and the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi in $1833$. Economic and social reforms were punctuated by the Balta Limanı Convention in $1838$ and the Edict of Tanzimat (Tanzimat Fermanı) in $1839$.

Mid-century developments involved the London Straits Convention in $1841$ and the Crimean War ($1853-1856$), which led to the Edict of Islahat (Islahat Fermanı) and the Treaty of Paris in $1856$. The latter part of the century was defined by the Proclamation of the Ottoman Constitution (Kanûn-i Esâsî) in $1876$, the Ottoman-Russian War ($93 \text{ Harbi}$) in $1877-1878$, and the subsequent Treaty of Berlin in $1878$. Economic sovereignty was further challenged by the establishment of the Public Debt Administration (Düyün-i Umumiye İdaresi) in $1881$. The era concluded with the proclamation of the Second Constitutional Era (II. Meşrutiyet) in $1908$, the Italo-Turkish War (Trablusgarp Savaşı) in $1911$, and the Balkan Wars in $1912$ (First Balkan War) and $1913$ (Second Balkan War).

Political and Economic Threats to the Ottoman State in the $19\text{th}$ Century

Despite heavy territorial losses, the Ottoman State remained one of the largest global entities by the $18\text{th}$ century. However, it failed to keep pace with the Enlightenment and the accompanying scientific and technological advancements of the West. This failure left the Empire vulnerable to the consequences of the Industrial Revolution, which prevented internal industrial development and turned Ottoman lands into an open market for industrialized Western nations. Furthermore, the French Revolution introduced the wave of nationalism, which incited various ethnic groups within the Empire to launch independence movements and rebellions throughout the $19\text{th}$ century.

To preserve its existence and territorial integrity, the Ottoman State continued Westernization efforts that had begun in the previous century. Priority was given to military and technical reforms due to the urgent need for a modern army equipped with technological tools. However, reforms were not limited to the military; they also extended to management, finance, and education. Despite these efforts, the state faced constant internal crises, including financial depressions and separatist movements, while simultaneously struggling against the threats and attacks of Western Great Powers.

The Diplomacy of Great Powers and the Balance of Power

During the $19\text{th}$ century, European states continued a diplomatic approach based on protecting national interests, a concept that became prominent during the Thirty Years' Wars. Seeking to become invincible powers by seizing global raw material sources, these states based their foreign policies on the principle famously articulated by British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston ($1784-1865$): "We have no eternal allies, and we have no perpetual enemies. Our interests are eternal and perpetual, and those interests it is our duty to follow." This realist outlook made any means seem legitimate in international relations. States used both war and diplomacy, forming ever-shifting alliances to balance the power of their rivals.

To increase their political and economic influence, colonial powers such as England, France, and Russia targeted lands and natural resources outside of Europe, particularly those held by the Turks. This led to a complex struggle where powers fought both against each other and against the Ottoman State. The Ottoman State responded by implementing a "Balance Policy" (Denge Politikası), which involved exploiting the conflicts of interest between major powers to ensure its own survival. For instance, the Empire drew closer to Western rivals of Russia to gain their support through commercial privileges or internal reforms like the Islahat Fermanı, thereby neutralizing Russian power.

National Policies of Major European Powers

France was initially the most important Western ally of the Ottoman State due to long-standing friendly relations and capitulations. However, this relationship was severely damaged in $1798$ when the French army, commanded by Napoleon Bonaparte, invaded Egypt. Although France was forced to withdraw after British and Russian intervention on the Ottoman side, it never abandoned its goal of dominating the Mediterranean. In $1807$, France signed the Treaty of Tilsit with Russia to plan the sharing of Ottoman lands. Over the following years, France seized Ottoman territories in North Africa, including Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia, while also encouraging non-Muslim Ottoman citizens to seek independence.

England was the strongest rival of France, characterized as the empire on which the sun never sets due to its vast colonies and powerful navy. England's primary concern was the security of its colonial routes to India, which were threatened by Russian expansion through the Balkans and the Straits. Consequently, England generally followed a policy of protecting Ottoman territorial integrity until the end of the $19\text{th}$ century to check Russian influence. Russia, on the other hand, sought to reach the Black Sea by taking Crimea and eventually gain access to "warm seas" by capturing the Straits. Russia promoted the ideal of Panslavism, acting as the protector of Orthodox Slavs and supporting independence movements among Balkan nations like the Serbs and Greeks.

Austria's Changing Role and the Grek (Greek) Project

Austria, another prominent rival, sought to transition from a land-locked power to a maritime one by settling in Balkan territories along the Adriatic and Aegean shores. To this end, Emperor II. Joseph allied with Russian Empress II. Katerina. They devised the "Grek Projesi" (Greek Project), a plan to share Ottoman lands and revive the ancient Byzantine Empire. This plan failed to materialize due to the death of II. Joseph in $1788$. The emergence of the French Revolution marked a turning point; fearing that the nationalist ideas spreading across Europe would reach its own borders, Austria shifted its policy to support the Ottoman State against Russia's Panslavism policy.

The Congress of Vienna and the Metternich System

The Napoleonic Wars, which began in $1792$ as the Revolutionary Wars and intensified after Napoleon took power in $1804$, ended in $1815$ with Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo. To restore the political balance of Europe, the Allied powers convened the Congress of Vienna, chaired by Austrian Prime Minister Klemens von Metternich. All major European states except the Ottoman State participated. The congress decisions redrew the map of Europe, restored monarchies, and returned France to its pre-revolutionary borders. This period, aimed at restoring the old political system, is known as the Restoration (Restorasyon) Period.

Austria, Prussia, England, and Russia formed the "Quadruple Alliance" (Dörtlü Bağlaşma) to implement the Congress decisions. They agreed on the "Metternich System," a policy of collective action to suppress any nationalist or revolutionary uprisings within empires. The Congress emphasized that borders were sacred and that dynasties were the legitimate foundation of states; their collapse would result in chaos. Despite these declarations of order, the European powers simultaneously negotiated the fate of the Ottoman State under a framework known as the "Eastern Question."

Evolution of the Eastern Question (Şark Meselesi)

The term "Eastern Question" was first used by Russian Tsar Alexander I at the Congress of Vienna to describe the situation of Christians under Ottoman rule. However, from a broader European perspective, the "Eastern Question" began with the Turkish victory at Malazgirt in $1071$, which opened Anatolia to the Turks. For centuries, Europeans sought to push the Turks back from Rumeli and Anatolia through the Crusades and later through strategies developed after the failure of the Second Siege of Vienna.

In the $19\text{th}$ century, the Eastern Question meant different things to different powers. Some saw it as the independence of Balkan nations, while England saw it as stopping Russian southward expansion. Russia, in turn, worked to prevent Western rivals from gaining influence over the Straits. A major shift occurred after the Ottoman-Russian War of $1877-1878$ and the Treaty of Berlin. In this period, England abandoned its policy of protecting Ottoman integrity and agreed with Russia and France to share Ottoman lands. In response, the Ottoman State shifted its balance policy toward Germany, which had achieved political unity in $1871$. Although European powers believed they had solved the Eastern Question by occupying Anatolia after World War I, they were forced to withdraw due to the National Struggle led by Mustafa Kemal.

Questions & Discussion

Q: What assessments can you make regarding the political and economic situation of the Ottoman State against European states in the $19\text{th}$ century? Response: The state was in a period of decline where it became an "open market" for the West due to the Industrial Revolution and suffered from internal fragmentation due to the French Revolution's nationalist movements. Politically, it relied on the "Balance Policy" to survive by playing Great Powers against each other.

Q: What could be the reasons for the acceleration of diplomacy between the Ottoman State and Western states in the $19\text{th}$ century? Response: The acceleration was driven by the global struggle for influence (The Great Game), the need for the Ottomans to find allies against Russian expansion, and the West's desire to manage the collapse of the "Sick Man of Europe" to prevent a general European war over the spoils.

Q: What conclusions can you draw from the concentration of innovations in the military and technical fields during the final periods of the Ottoman State? Response: It indicates that survival was the primary concern; the state recognized that without a modern, technologically advanced military, it could not defend its territorial integrity against the modernized armies of Europe.

Q: Can it be said that the Eastern Question is completely solved and no longer on the agenda for Western states? Why? Response: While the Western states believed they solved it by the end of World War I, the Turkish National Struggle proved otherwise. The enduring geopolitical importance of the region suggests that the core interests associated with the "Eastern Question"—control of the Straits and regional influence—remain relevant in modern diplomacy.