Hillforts & Oppida in Celtic Europe - Notes

Numerous scholarly works exploring the concept of 'Celt' in history and archaeology:
- Celtic from the West Series (2012, 2013, 2016) by Barry Cunliffe and John T. Koch examines the Bronze Age and arrival of Indo-Europeans in Atlantic Europe.
- Celto-Sceptic Perspectives (1999, 2003) by John Collis discusses the origins and myths surrounding the Celts.
- Discussion of Celtic 'Multiplism' highlights diverse cultures and languages among those referred to as Celts without a singular material culture.

Key Features:
- Emergence of written records, coinage, and urban settlements.
- Development of large settlements known as Central Places, Urban Sites, Hillforts, and Oppida.
- Interconnections between regions suggest trade, migration, and cultural exchange with the Mediterranean.
Chronological Division:
- Early Iron Age / Hallstatt C+D 750-450 BC
- Late Iron Age / La Tène A-D 450-20 BC

Significant archaeological site in the Alps, Austria:
- Excavations since the 19th century have revealed around 6,000 graves.
- Importance of the site relates to salinity and burial practices in ancient settlements.
- Remains indicate highly developed social structures and trade systems.

Towns began to emerge in Central Europe between the 7th and 5th centuries BC, influenced by:
- Decline of princely seats by 450 BC possibly due to social unrest or climate changes.
- Rebirth of urbanization in the Late Iron Age marked by warmer and drier climates, increased production, and trade.
Oppidum Characteristics:
- Originated as fortified sites in the Late Iron Age and served as central places for urban and rural populations.
- Examples include Manching (Bavaria, Germany) with extensive fortifications and artifacts indicating craft production and trade connections.