Untitled Flashcards Set

Bio 242

Unit 1 Review – Blood, Cardiovascular System

Please note that this review sheet is not meant to be all inclusive.  Your study should also include your lecture notes.

Items with ***** indicate potential short essay questions.

Blood

1.      List and describe functions of blood.*****

a.      Transports vital substances, maintains stability of interstitial fluid, distributes heat

b.      Protects against inflammation, limits spread of infection, destroys microorganisms/cancer cells, neutralizes toxins, and initiates clotting

c.       Regulates fluid balance, stabilizes pH of ECF, and temperature control

d.      Blood is a colloig

2.      How many oxygen molecules can be carried by a single red blood cell?

a.      280 million hemoglobin are carried by a single RBC and every hemoglobin carries 4 O molecules

3.      Blood accounts for what percentage of body weight?

a.      Around 8% of the body weight

4.      Normal white blood cell counts….normal red blood cell counts.

a.      Normal WBC ranges 5,000 to 10,000 WBCs/mL

b.      Normal RBC varies, but ranges around 4 – 6 million

5.      Distinguish between plasma and formed elements.  What are the components of each? Percentage of each in total blood volume.

a.      The formed elements are solid portions while the plasma is the fluid portion

b.      Albumin, globulins, fibrinogen, clotting proteins, enzymes, and hormones

c.       Plasma proteins exert colloid osmotic pressure, this helps prevent the loss of fluid from blood as it moves through the capillaries. (also maintains blood volume and blood pressure)

6.      Red blood cell characteristics and functions.

a.      Functions: carry oxygen to cell tissues, and carry carbon dioxide to lungs (gas transport)

b.      Characteristics: red, biconcave disks , stackable, able to squeeze through capillaries, lack most organelles (nuclei and mitochondria)

7.      White blood cell characteristics, percentages, and functions.  Know the specific characteristics and functions of each type of white blood cell.

a.      Least abundant formed element (5,000 -10,000 EBC/uL); protects against microorganisms and other pathogens; has organelles for protein synthesis.

                                                              i.      Neutrophils: light purple granules in acid-base stain with a lobed nucleus; phagocytic; first to arrive at infections; elevated in bacterial infections

                                                            ii.      Eosinophils: deep ref granules in acid stain with a bi-lobed nucleus; increase during moderate allergic reactions and parasitic worm infestation

                                                          iii.      Basophils: deep blue granules; similar to eosinophils in size and shape of nuclei; release histamine and heparin (inflammatory response and an anticoagulant)

                                                          iv.      Monocytes: largest of all blood cells; spherical, kidney-shaped, orval or lobed nuclei; become macrophages; phagocytize bacteria, dead cells, and other debris

                                                            v.      Lymphocytes: (little cell, large nucleus) little in size (only slightly larger than rbc) with a large nucleus; has t-cells and b-cells that provide immunity and antibodies  (second most common

8.      Distinguish between oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin.

a.      Oxyhemoglobin is the oxygen-rich form of hemoglobin

b.      Deoxyhemoglobin is the oxygen-depleted form of hemoglobin

9.      Name and describe the functions of the specific plasma proteins (albumins, etc.)

a.       Albumins: smallest and most abundant group of plasma proteins (58%). They act as transport proteins for some lipids, hormones, and ions. The exert the greatest colloid osmotic pressure

b.      Globulins: The second largest group of plasma proteins (37%). They include the smaller alpha-globulins and the larger beta-globulins that transport some water-insoluble molecules, hormones, metals, and ions. They also include gamma-globulins (immunoglobulins or antibodies) which make up the body’s defense.   

c.       Fibrinogen: Only makes up 4% of plasma proteins, but contributes to blood clot formation. Following a trauma, it is converted to insoluble fibrin strands.

d.      Regulatory proteins: less than 1% of total proteins and they include enzymes and hormones

10.  Describe the negative feedback mechanism that controls the production of red blood cells.  What is erythropoietin?  Where is it produced?  What is its effect on red blood cell production? *****

a.      Low blood oxygen causes the kidneys and the liver to release erythropoietin which stimulates red blood cell production

b.      Erythropoietin (EPO): a hormone produced by the liver to stimulate red blood cell production. The extra erythrocytes increase blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity

11.  Describe the life cycle of a red blood cell. *****

a.      Erythropoiesis is the production of red blood cells

b.      Begins with a myeloid stem cell -> progenitor cell -> proerythroblast (large neulculated cell) -> erythroblast (smaller, produces hemoglobin) -> normoblast (smaller, more hemoglobin, anucleate)->reticulocyte -> erythrocyte (degenerated ribosomes)

c.       They live about 120 days. The constant squeezing through capillaries of active tissue damages red blood cells

d.      Macrophages in the spleen and liver phagocytize damaged red blood cells. The hemoglobin from the damaged red blood cells are decomposed into heme [converted into iron (makes more hemoglobin) and biliverdin(also converted into bilirubin and excreted in bile)] and globin (broken down into amino acids metabolized by macrophages/or released into the blood).

12.  Blood typing: what antigen is present with each type? What antibody is present with each type?  Which types can be safely given and received?

a.      Blood types and transfusion compatibility are a matter of interactions between plasma proteins (antibodies and antigens) and erythrocytes.

                                                              i.      Antigens: complex molecules (glycoproteins) on surface of cell membrane that are unique to the individual; they are used to distinguish self from foreign. Any foreign antigens that are found create an immune response

1.      Agglutinogens: specific antigens on the surface of the red blood cell that is the basis for blood typing, it is the molecule that bi

                                                            ii.      Antibodies: proteins (gamma globulins) found in the plasma secreted by plasma cells (b-cells). They are part of the immune response to foreign matter, they bind to antigens and mark them for destruction

1.      Agglutinins: antibodies in the plasma that bring about transfusion mismatch

                                                          iii.      agglutination: antibody molecule that binds to antigens and creates a clumping of red blood cells

b.      ABO Groups: a blood typing that is determined by the presence of absence of antigens (agglutinogen) on red blood cells.

                                                              i.      Type A: Have A-Antigens

                                                            ii.      Type B: Have B-Antigens

                                                          iii.      Type AB: Have both A and B Antigens

1.      Rarest type

                                                          iv.      Type O: Have neither antigen

1.      Most common type, universal donor

c.       Rh Blood group: contains several Rh antigens or other factors

                                                              i.      Rh positive: PRESENCE of antigen D or other Rh antigens

                                                            ii.      Rh negative: LACK of antigen D or other Rh antigens

13.  Distinguish between granulocytes and agranulocytes.  Which white blood cells belong in each category?

a.      Granulocytes: These have specific granules in their cytoplasm that contain enzymes (and other chemicals) employed in the innate immune response (immediate defense against infections). Engulf/destroy bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens.

                                                              i.      Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

b.      Agranulocytes: lack granules in their cytoplasm, more involved in adaptive immunity (a more specific response that develops memory against particular pathogens)

                                                              i.      Lymphocytes and monocytes

14.  Define hemostasis.  Name and describe the three processes of hemostasis.*****

a.      Vascular spasm – prompt constriction of smooth muscle in a broken vessel

b.      Platelet plug formation – triggered by exposure of platelets to collagen

c.       Coagulation – conversion of plasma protein fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin threads to form framework of clot

15.  Disorders

a.      Hemophilia – family of hereditary diseases characterized by deficiencies of one factor or another

b.      Thrombosis – abnormal clotting in unbroken vessel

c.       Anemia – deficiency of red blood cells or hemoglobin

d.      Polycythemia – excess of red blood cells

e.       Newborn Hemolytic Disease: genetically determined antigens means that a child can have a blood type different from either parent. During the birth of an Rh+ infant from an Rh- mother, there will be issue for the next pregnancy. The hemorraging the of first birth exposes maternal blood to fetal Rh+ cells and leads to a sensitization or activation of the mother’s immune system to produce anti-Rh antibodies. During the second pregnancy with an Rh+ infant, the maternal anti-Rh antibodies can cross the placental barrier and attack fetal cells (erythroblastosis fetalis)

Cardiovascular system

1.      Name and describe an ECG.  What is happening during the P wave, QRS complex, and the T wave.  What does an ECG record?

a.      An electrocardiogram (or ECG/EKG) a recording of electrical changes that occur in the myocardium during the cardiac cycle that are amplified and recorded by electrodes on the arm, legs, and chest.

                                                              i.      P Wave: atrial depolarization (nerve impulse traveling); After the SA node fires, the atria depolarize and contract

                                                            ii.      QRS Complex (three waves): electrical changes, ventricular depolarization (the nerve impulse travels the purkinjy fibers); the shape of the spike is due to the difference thickness and shape of the two ventricles. (atrial also systole)

                                                          iii.      ST segment: ventricular systole; the entire ventricular myocardium is depolarized

                                                          iv.      T wave: ventricular repolarization and relaxation

2.      Describe the pathway of blood through the five types of blood vessels (artery, arteriole, etc.)

3.      Name and describe the layers of the pericardium.

a.      Fibrous pericardium: The outermost covering that is composed of dense irregular connective tissue; it attaches to the diaphragm and base of aorta, pulmonary trunk; it anchors the heart and prevents its overfilling

b.      Parietal layer of serous pericardium: composed of squamous epithelium and areolar connective tissue

c.       Visceral layer of serous pericardium: composed of squamous epithelium and areolar connective tissue; attaches directly to the heart

4.      Name, locate, and describe the layers of the wall of the heart.

a.      Epicardium: the visceral layer of serous pericardium; outermost heart layer; composed of simple squamous epithelium and areolar connective tissue

b.      Myocardium: Middle layer of the heart wall (it is also the thickest); cardiac muscle tissue that contracts to pump blood

c.       Endocardium: Cover internal surface of the heart and external surface of valves; composed of simple squamous epithelium and areolar connective tissue; it is continuous with the lining of blood vessels

5.      Name, describe the structure, and describe the location of the valves of the heart.

a.      Atrioventricular Valves: Sit between the atrium and ventricle of each side (right and left)

                                                              i.      Right Atrioventricular Valve: tricuspid

                                                            ii.      Left Atrioventricular Valve: Bicuspid or mitral

b.      Semilunar Valves: Sit at boundary of ventricle and arterial trunk

                                                              i.      Pulmonary Semilunar Valve: located between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk

                                                            ii.      Aortic Semilunar Valve: located between left ventricle and the aorta

6.      Why are the atria thinner than the ventricles?  Why is the left ventricle thicker than the other heart chambers?

a.      The ventricles are the pumping chambers and the muscle is more developed than the atria. This also means that the left ventricle is thick than any of the other heart chambers because it must generate the highest pressure to force the blood through systemic circulation.

7.      Describe the cardiac cycle. *****

a.      Cardiac cycle: all events in the heart from the start of one heartbeat to the start of the next

                                                              i.      All four (4) chambers at rest

                                                            ii.      Blood returning to both atria

                                                          iii.      Passive filling of ventricles

1.      Atrioventricular valves open; atria are filling with blood

2.      Atrial pressure is greater than ventricular

                                                          iv.      Semilunar valves closed

1.      Ventricular pressure is greater than arterial pressure

8.      Describe the pathway of the cardiac conduction system.  What is the function of the cardiac conduction system?

a.      Cardiac conduction system: the electrical activity that causes the heart to beat; specialized cardiac muscle tissue initiates and distributes impulses throughout the myocardium

9.      What causes heart sounds?

a.      You hear the vibrations of the valves closing (first part are the AV valves closing; second part are the pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves closing)

10.  Describe the specific location of the heart.

a.      The heart is enclosed in pericardium within the thoracic cavity, it sits posterior to sternum left of body midline. It sits between the lungs in mediastinum in a slightly rotated position (right side more anterior than left)

11.  What is the function of the coronary sinus?

a.      Coronary Sinus: one of the several cardiac veins that drain the heart muscles. It sits in the posterior aspect of the coronary sulcus. It receives blood from cardiac veins and drains into the right atrium.

12.  What are baroreceptors?  What is their function?  Where are they located?

a.      Located in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses

13.  Distinguish between the structure and function of arteries, capillaries, and veins.  How is structure reflected in function?

a.      Arteries: carry blood AWAY from the heart; mostly carries oxygenated blood

b.      Capillaries: sites of exchanges

c.       Veins: carry blood TOWARDS the heart; mostly carries deoxygenated blood

Name and describe the wall of a blood vessel.  Compare the differences between arteries and veins.

14.  Trace a drop of blood through the heart listing all chambers, valves, and blood vessels the blood will pass through from the time it enters the right atria until it leaves the left ventricle.*****

a.       Right atrium

b.      Right ventricle

c.       Pulmonary trunk

d.      Pulmonary arteries

e.       Capillaries (alveoli in lungs)

f.        Pulmonary veins

g.      Left atrium

h.      Left ventricle

i.        Ascending aorta

15.  Describe factors that alter blood pressure: cardiac output (heart rate/stroke volume), blood viscosity, peripheral resistance.  Describe the relationship between these factors and blood pressure. *****

16.  Describe the location of external structures of the heart (ex. auricles, sulci, etc.).

17.  Distinguish between the terms systole and diastole. 

18.  What do the numbers in blood pressure represent?

19.  What mechanisms assist venous blood returning to the heart?

20.  What effects do cardiac output and vasomotion have on blood pressure? *****

21.  Disorders