Study Notes on American Foreign Policy (1890-1914) and the Panama Canal

Inspired by Alfred Thayer Mahan's theories from his book The Influence of Seapower upon History.
Aimed to facilitate international trade and military mobility through a canal in Central America.
Panama was identified as the optimal location due to its fifty-mile isthmus.

Initial Treaty Proposal: Roosevelt negotiated with Colombia, proposing a royalty for land acquisition:
- One-time payment of $10 million and an annual rental fee of $250,000.
Colombian Response: The Colombian Senate rejected the treaty due to public outrage over perceived unfair compensation for loss of land.

Undeterred by Colombia's refusal, Roosevelt employed a more aggressive foreign policy approach referred to as the “big stick”.
Support for Panamanian Independence:
- Roosevelt suggested military backing for a Panamanian revolt.
- American battleships were dispatched to the Colombian coast to prevent Colombian troop relocation to suppress the uprising.
Recognition of Panama: Following a successful revolution in November 1903, Roosevelt quickly recognized Panama and proceeded with the canal project under similar terms as offered to Colombia.

Upon securing Panama's independence, U.S. commenced construction in May 1904.
Initial efforts focused on infrastructure:
- Housing, cafeterias, warehouses, and machine shops.
- Implemented fumigation systems and mosquito nets post Walter Reed’s research on malaria and yellow fever, greatly reducing worker fatalities and increasing morale.
Engineers opted for a lock-system over a sea-level canal, necessitating the excavation of over 170 million cubic yards of earth using 100+ steam shovels.
Roosevelt famously became the first sitting U.S. president to visit an active war site abroad, operating a steam shovel himself.
The Panama Canal was officially opened in 1914, transforming global trade and military strategies.

Aimed to reinforce U.S. dominance in the Western Hemisphere and limit European colonization.
Articulated during a 1904 address to Congress, expanding upon the Monroe Doctrine by stating that the U.S. would act as an international police power to prevent instability in Latin America.

The U.S. would intervene militarily in cases of "chronic wrongdoing" by Latin American nations.
This marked a shift from non-interference to a policy of proactive engagement in regional affairs.
Roosevelt used this justification to establish U.S. interests and protectorates in nations such as Cuba, Panama, and the Dominican Republic.

Neighboring countries expressed growing resentment over U.S. interventions.
Fears of American reprisal prevented serious pushback against Roosevelt's policies.
Subsequent U.S. administrations would build upon, yet also soften, the rhetoric established by the Roosevelt Corollary, most notably with Franklin Roosevelt's Good Neighbor Policy.

Roosevelt’s approach to foreign policy aimed to maintain balance of power in the Pacific.
Initially supporting Japan against Russia over territorial disputes in China, he later acted to mediate peace once Japan gained the upper hand, fearing a shift in regional power dynamics.
Treaty of Portsmouth (1905): Negotiations led to Japan gaining control over Korea and other territories, with Roosevelt being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his diplomatic efforts.

To assert U.S. naval power and response capability in the Pacific, Roosevelt sent the Great White Fleet on a goodwill tour and a show of force, meant as a warning regarding American interests.

William Howard Taft’s presidency adopted a more economically focused foreign policy compared to his predecessor.
Aimed to use American economic might to protect national interests abroad, particularly in Central America.

Taft advocated “substituting dollars for bullets,” offering U.S. investments as leverage.
Concerns regarding European financial influence over Central American countries led Taft to provide loans to alleviate debts.
Notably intervened militarily in Nicaragua to enforce financial agreements and protect American economic interests.
Proposed the Lodge Corollary, preventing foreign corporations, especially Japanese, from acquiring land in the Western Hemisphere.

Although Taft’s focus on economic diplomacy marked a shift away from military aggression, it generated local resentment and fueled nationalist movements in various nations against perceived U.S. imperialism.