General Biology 110: Comprehensive Science Section Review
Page 1: Introduction to General Biology 110
This section, led by Dr. Moayad, focuses on assessing student understanding of fundamental biological concepts through a series of review questions.
Page 2: Cell Structures and Basic Metabolism
- Plant Cells: Identified by the presence of a cell wall and chloroplasts.
- Cellular Respiration: The process of acquiring energy by breaking down organic molecules.
- Plasma Membrane: Primarily functions in regulating the entrance and exit of substances.
- Bacterial Cells: Characterized by lacking a nucleus, though they contain cytoplasm, ribosomes, and flagella.
Page 3: Organelle Specialization and Initial Metabolic Steps
- Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Responsible for lipid production.
- Golgi Apparatus: Modifies molecules and adds carbohydrate chains to proteins to form glycoproteins.
- Ribosomes: Perform protein synthesis.
- Glycolysis: The first step of cellular respiration; it takes place in the cytoplasm (outside the mitochondria).
Page 4: Photosynthesis and Respiration Products
- Glycolysis Result: Produces two pyruvate molecules (pyruvic acid).
- Photosynthesis Stages: Solar energy is absorbed during the light reaction, while is absorbed during the Calvin cycle.
- Final Products: - Cellular Respiration: , , and water. - Photosynthesis: Glucose and oxygen ().
- Vacuoles: Organelles containing powerful digestive enzymes (specifically in plant cells).
Page 5: Cell Differentiation and Membrane Composition
- Rough ER: Distinguished by attached ribosomes.
- Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes: The presence of a nucleus is the primary distinction.
- Plant vs. Animal Cells: Distinguished by the cell wall.
- Plasma Membrane Structure: Composed of a phospholipid bilayer and embedded proteins. Phospholipids are amphipathic, containing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.
Page 6: Membrane Transport Mechanisms
- Fluid Model: The membrane is considered fluid due to its lipid components.
- Aquaporins: Specialized channel proteins for water transport.
- Active Transport: Requires energy to move substances, unlike passive transport or osmosis.
- Isotonic Solution: Concentrations of solute are equal inside and outside the cell.
- Bulk Transport: Endocytosis and exocytosis move very large molecules into or out of the cell.
Page 7: Movement and Concentration Gradients
- Exocytosis: Substance exit; Endocytosis: Substance entry.
- Passive Transport: Movement (like diffusion and osmosis) that does not require energy.
- Active Transport: Movement from lower to higher concentration (against the gradient), such as the sodium-potassium pump in nerve cells.
- Osmosis: Specifically defined as the diffusion of water.
Page 8: Specialized Proteins and Solution Effects
- Channel Proteins: Allow ions/molecules to cross reaching the inner mitochondrial membrane or plasma membrane.
- Carrier Proteins: Assist in transporting ions like sodium and potassium across the membrane.
- Phagocytosis: A process where the cell engulfs viruses or food particles.
- Hypotonic Solution: Causes cells to intake water and swell.
Page 9: Viral Reproduction and Cycles
- Virus Characteristics: Contain either DNA or RNA and replicate only inside a host cell.
- Lytic Cycle: Reproductive cycle that destroys the host cell.
- Lysogenic Cycle: The viral genome integrates into the host DNA.
- Isotonic State: Water does not move in or out of the cell.
Page 10: Bacterial Classification and Exchange
- Taxonomy: Bacteria are prokaryotes; protists are eukaryotes.
- Genetic Exchange: - Conjugation: Via a pilus filament. - Transduction: Via bacteriophages.
- Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV): Cannot infect humans due to differences in human cell receptors.
- Flagella: Used for movement in bacteria.
Page 11: Bacteria, Archaea, and Viral Defense
- Gram Staining: Gram-positive bacteria appear purple; Gram-negative appear pink.
- Viral Defense: Bacteria use restriction enzymes to cut foreign phage DNA.
- Archaea: Extremophiles that survive harsh conditions due to unusual lipids in their plasma membrane.
Page 12: Microbiology Fundamentals
- Prophage: Viral genome integrated with bacterial DNA.
- Classification: Viruses are categorized by nucleic acids and outer envelopes.
- Binary Fission: The method of bacterial asexual reproduction.
- Viral Structure: Consists of a protein coat (capsid) and nucleic acids.
Page 13: Fungal Anatomy and Physiology
- Fungi Characteristics: - Multicellular body called a mycelium. - Network of filament tissue called hyphae. - Cell walls containing chitin. - Energy stored as glycogen.
- Phylogeny: Bacteria and Archaea are both prokaryotes.
Page 14: Fungal and Protist Lifestyles
- Fungal Nutrition: Occurs through absorption (heterotrophic).
- Reproduction: Both sexual and asexual; fragmentation is a common asexual method.
- Protists: Examples include diatoms; many protozoans ingest food via endocytosis.
Page 15: Specialized Reproductive Methods
- Yeast: Unicellular fungi that reproduce asexually via budding.
- Fungal Spores: The primary means of reproduction for many fungi.
- Mosaic Model: The plasma membrane is considered mosaic due to its protein components.
Page 16: Plasma Membrane Interactions
- Diffusion: Oxygen may pass the membrane via simple diffusion.
- Hypertonic Solution: Outside concentration is higher than inside, causing cells to shrink.
- Receptor Proteins: Bind specific molecules to trigger cellular responses.
- Lysosomes/Vacuoles: Plant vacuoles and animal lysosomes contain digestive enzymes for recycling non-functional organelles.
Page 17: Viral and Bacterial Structures
- Lytic Cycle Steps: Attachment, Penetration, Biosynthesis, Assembly, and Release.
- Bacterial Envelope Layers (Inside to Outside): Plasma membrane ightarrow Cell wall ightarrow Glycocalyx.
Page 18: Cellular Internal Components
- Nucleoid: The region where the bacterial chromosome is located.
- Rough ER: Functions in adding carbohydrate chains to proteins.
- Endocytosis: The specific term for large molecules entering the cell.
Page 19: Pro- and Eukaryotic Distinctions
- Plasmid: Extra-chromosomal circular supercoiled DNA in bacteria.
- Nucleus: Only present in eukaryotic cells; absent in prokaryotes (Bacteria and Archaea).
- High External Concentration: Termed a hypertonic solution.
Page 20: Molecular Biology and Respiration Sequences
- Phospholipids: Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail.
- Cellular Respiration Sequence: Glycolysis ightarrow Preparatory reaction ightarrow Citric acid cycle ightarrow Electron transport chain.
- Polymerase: Enzyme required to produce viral DNA/RNA.
Page 21: Enzymes and Cell Solutions
- Peroxisomes: Contain the enzyme catalase.
- Cell Recognition Protein: Helps the body identify invading pathogens.
- Cytolysis: Occurs in a hypotonic solution as the cell swells and bursts.
- Heterotrophic Bacteria: Beneficial for breaking down organic molecules.
Page 22: Transport and Model Review
- Facilitated Diffusion: A type of transport that does not require energy.
- Fluid Mosaic Model: Describes the plasma membrane structure.
- Pinocytosis: A specific type of endocytosis for liquid uptake.
Page 23: Proteins and Permeability
- ATP Production: The Electron transport chain phase produces the most .
- Membrane Permeability: Small, non-charged molecules cross the plasma membrane most quickly.
- Aquaporin: The specific channel protein for water movement.
- Golgi Apparatus: Crucial for modifying and packaging proteins for secretion.
Page 24: Blood Groups and Membrane Selectivity
- Blood Groups: Human blood groups are based on carbohydrate chains in the plasma membrane.
- Selectively Permeable: Describes a membrane that allows only certain substances to pass.
- Naked Virus: A virus that lacks an outer envelope.
Page 25: Bacterial and Fungal Components
- Peptidoglycan: The molecule that strengthens the bacterial cell wall.
- Glycocalyx: A polysaccharide layer outside the bacterial cell wall (capsule).
- Simple Diffusion: Molecules like oxygen cross the membrane this way.
Page 26-29: Final Summaries
- Capsid: The protein coat of a virus.
- Lysosomes: Contain powerful digestive enzymes in animal cells.
- Bacterial Reproduction: Primarily asexual through binary fission.
- Protists: All protists are eukaryotes.
- Bacterial Cell Wall: Functions Primarily to maintain the cell's shape.
- Photosynthesis Start: Begins with the light reaction.