Psychology 2e: Emotion
Chapter 10: Emotion
Introduction to Motivation and Emotion
Emotions can change rapidly, particularly in response to unexpected events.
Examples from the April , Boston Marathon bombing include immediate feelings of surprise, fear, anger, and sadness.
Key questions explored in this chapter: What constitutes an emotion? What are their root causes? What drives immediate helping behaviors in some bystanders versus self-preservation in others?
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation: Defined as the internal 'wants' or 'needs' that channel an individual's behavior towards achieving a specific goal.
Intrinsic Motivation:
Originates from internal factors within an individual.
Behaviors are undertaken because they inherently provide a sense of personal satisfaction and enjoyment.
Extrinsic Motivation:
Arises from external factors or influences.
Behaviors are performed primarily to gain something from others, such as rewards, recognition, or to avoid punishment.
Overjustification Effect: This phenomenon describes the reduction of intrinsic motivation when an extrinsic motivation is introduced.
Research Example: If a beloved hobby, like icing cakes, becomes a paid profession, the intrinsic desire to do it for enjoyment may diminish once it's linked to an extrinsic reward (payment).
However, other research indicates that certain types of reinforcement, like verbal praise, can actually enhance intrinsic motivation.
**Explanations for observed differences in motivation change:
Type of Reinforcement:
Tangible rewards (e.g., money, gifts) tend to decrease intrinsic motivation.
Intangible rewards (e.g., praise, recognition) tend to increase motivation.
Expectation of Extrinsic Reward: Intrinsic motivation is more likely to decline if the extrinsic reward is anticipated from the outset.
Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory of Motivation
William James: Proposed that human and animal behaviors are fundamentally driven by instincts, which are innate, unlearned patterns of behavior crucial for survival.
Proposed Instincts: Included a mother's protective behaviors towards her offspring, the inherent urge to taste sugar, and the act of hunting prey.
Human Instincts: May encompass primal behaviors such as an infant's rooting reflex for a nipple and the subsequent sucking behavior.
Criticism: The theory faced considerable criticism for largely overlooking or underemphasizing the significant role of learning in shaping complex human behaviors over time.
Drive Theory of Motivation
Core Proposal: This theory asserts that maintaining homeostasis (a state of physiological equilibrium or balance) is paramount in directing behavior.
Mechanism:
Any deviation from this homeostatic state creates physiological needs (e.g., lack of water).
These physiological needs then manifest as corresponding psychological drive states (e.g., thirst).
These drive states compel an individual to engage in behaviors designed to meet the underlying need and restore the system to homeostasis.
Role of Habits: The theory heavily emphasizes the role of habits, defined as patterns of behavior in which individuals regularly engage.
If a particular behavior successfully alleviates a drive (e.g., drinking water reduces thirst), an individual is much more likely to repeat that behavior in similar future situations.
Example: The complex physiological processes underlying hunger and subsequent eating behaviors are primarily aimed at maintaining the body's homeostatic balance.
Arousal Theory of Motivation
Fundamental Premise: Arousal theories posit that every individual strives to maintain an optimal level of arousal.
Underarousal: When levels of arousal are too low, individuals may become bored and actively seek out stimulating activities or environments.
Overarousal: Conversely, when arousal levels are too high, individuals will engage in behaviors designed to reduce this heightened state.
**Optimal Arousal and Performance:
Research indicates that performance on a task is maximized when arousal levels are moderate.
Performance tends to decrease (taper off) when an individual is either underaroused or overaroused.
Yerkes-Dodson Law (): This law refines the arousal theory by stating that the optimal level of arousal required for peak performance is contingent upon the complexity and difficulty of the task.
Difficult tasks: Generally best performed under lower levels of arousal.
Simple tasks: Conversely, these are best performed under higher levels of arousal.
Overall: Task performance is typically optimal within a middle range of arousal.
Self-Efficacy & Social Motivation
Self-Efficacy:
Definition: An individual's personal conviction in their own ability to successfully accomplish a task.
Bandura's Theory: Albert Bandura theorized that self-efficacy plays a critical role in motivating behavior.
He argued that motivation is largely derived from the expectations individuals hold about the potential consequences of their actions.
An individual's beliefs concerning their capabilities will significantly influence the actions they choose to pursue and the goals they set for themselves.
Social Motives: These are innate human desires that drive individuals to connect and interact within their social environments.
Need for achievement: The intrinsic drive to excel, accomplish challenging goals, and perform at a high level.
Need for affiliation: The desire to foster positive and meaningful interactions with others, seeking acceptance and belonging.
Need for intimacy: The deep-seated urge to form close, meaningful, and profound relationships with other individuals.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow (): Developed a comprehensive theory of motivation that encompasses a broad spectrum of human motives, ranging from fundamental biological needs to complex individual and social aspirations.
Core Principle: Maslow's hierarchy is structured such that lower-level needs must be adequately satisfied before an individual can genuinely focus on and address needs located at higher levels of the hierarchy.
Illustrative Example: A person lacking basic necessities such as food, water, and shelter is highly unlikely to prioritize concerns related to social relationships, self-esteem, or what others think about them.
Hunger & Eating
Physiological Mechanisms
Hunger and eating behaviors are intricately controlled by a complex interaction of hunger and satiety (fullness) signals that are processed and integrated within the brain.
**Before Eating (Signals for Hunger Initiation):
Empty Stomach: An empty stomach contracts, generating hunger pangs and secreting specific chemical messages. These signals travel to the brain, prompting the initiation of feeding behavior.
Low Blood Glucose Levels: When blood glucose levels drop, the pancreas and liver respond by generating chemical signals that induce hunger, thereby initiating the drive to eat.
**After Eating (Signals for Satiation/Cessation of Eating):
Satiation: This refers to the feeling of fullness and satisfaction that ultimately causes eating behavior to cease.
Increase in Blood Glucose Levels: Following food intake, elevated blood glucose levels trigger the pancreas and liver to send signals to the brain, which then effectively suppress hunger and halt eating.
Food Passage Through Gastrointestinal Tract: As food moves through the digestive system, the gastrointestinal tract sends satiety signals directly to the brain.
Leptin Release: Fat cells within the body release leptin, which is a crucial satiety hormone. Leptin signals the brain about the body's energy stores, contributing to long-term satiety.
Metabolism & Body Weight
**Factors Affecting Body Weight:
Gene-environment interactions: A combination of an individual's genetic predispositions and their surrounding environmental factors.
Caloric Balance: The balance between the number of calories consumed and the number of calories expended through daily physical activity.
Metabolic Rate: The rate at which the body expends energy over a given period.
This rate varies significantly among individuals.
Individuals with a higher metabolic rate tend to burn calories more readily compared to those with lower metabolic rates.
**Regulation of Body Weight - Set-Point Theory:
Core Idea: This theory suggests that each individual possesses an ideal body weight, or 'set point', which the body actively resists changing.
Genetic Determination: The set point is believed to be largely determined by genetic factors.
Compensatory Changes: Attempts to significantly alter body weight away from this set point are often met with physiological compensatory changes in both energy intake (e.g., increased hunger) and energy expenditure (e.g., altered metabolism).
Basis of Theory: It is based on the observation that most people's weight tends to fluctuate only within a relatively narrow range over time.
Limitations: The set-point theory has been criticized for not adequately explaining the considerable influence of social and environmental factors on weight regulation and the rising rates of obesity.
Obesity
**Body Mass Index (BMI) Classifications:
: Classified as overweight.
: Classified as obese. (over 30)
: Classified as morbidly obese. (over 40)
Prevalence in the U.S.: Approximately of adult individuals in the United States face challenges associated with being overweight or obese.
Environmental Factors Contributing to Obesity: Beyond genetics and energy balance, socioeconomic status and the physical environment play significant roles.
Physical Activity Limitations: Residents of neighborhoods with high crime rates may feel unsafe engaging in physical activities like walking or biking, thereby limiting their exercise opportunities.
Access to Healthy Food: Individuals with lower socioeconomic status may lack the financial resources to consistently afford healthier food options, often leading to reliance on less nutritious, calorie-dense foods.
Weight Reduction Strategies: The most effective approach typically involves a combination of dietary modifications and consistent physical exercise.
Bariatric Surgery: Surgical interventions such as gastric banding create a smaller stomach pouch, significantly reducing the amount of food that can be consumed and digested.
Health Risks Associated with Obesity:
Cardiovascular disease
Stroke
Type diabetes
Breast cancer
Infertility
Arthritis
Liver disease
Sleep apnea
Colon cancer
Eating Disorders
Bulimia Nervosa:
Characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating, which involve consuming unusually large amounts of food in a short period, followed by compensatory behaviors.
Compensatory Behaviors: These are actions taken to prevent weight gain, and can include self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, excessive exercise, or fasting.
Health Consequences: Can lead to severe physiological damage, including kidney failure, heart failure, and erosion of tooth enamel due to stomach acid.
Psychological Problems: Often co-occurs with depression, anxiety disorders, and an elevated risk for substance abuse.
Anorexia Nervosa:
Defined by the maintenance of a dangerously low body weight relative to age and height, primarily through starvation and/or excessive exercise.
Distorted Body Image: Individuals with anorexia nervosa typically have a severely distorted perception of their own body, viewing themselves as overweight or obese even when they are critically underweight.
Health Consequences: Can result in serious and life-threatening medical complications, such as bone loss, heart failure, kidney failure, amenorrhea (cessation of menstrual periods), reduced function of the gonads, and in severe cases, death.
Psychological Problems: Frequently associated with anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and substance abuse.
At-Risk Population: Young Caucasian females, particularly those aged from Western societies, are identified as the most at-risk demographic for developing eating disorders.
**Contributing Factors:
Media Influence: Many attribute the prevalence of eating disorders to media messages that promote an unrealistic and often unattainable 'thin ideal'.
Genetics: There may be a genetic predisposition that makes certain individuals more susceptible to these disorders.
Psychological Vulnerabilities: Low self-esteem and the presence of other mental illnesses (e.g., anxiety, depression).
Life Stressors: Significant life transitions, periods of intense stress, and traumatic experiences like abuse and bullying.
Personality Traits: Certain personality types, such as perfectionism, are often linked to a higher risk.
Family Dynamics: Dysfunctional or stressful family environments can also contribute.
Sexual Behavior
Physiological Mechanisms of Sexual Behavior
Hypothalamus: This brain region plays a crucial role in regulating various motivated behaviors, including sexual behavior.
Research in Male Rats: Lesions to the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus in male rats completely disrupt their ability to engage in sexual behavior, notably without affecting their sexual motivation (they will still seek out sexually receptive females).
This suggests that the neural systems governing the ability to perform sexual behavior are distinct from those mediating the motivation for it.
In Humans: Disorders involving abnormal hypothalamic function are frequently associated with hypogonadism (reduced function of the gonads) and diminished sexual function.
Hormonal Influence: Hormones secreted by endocrine glands, such as testosterone, exert a significant influence on both sexual motivation and behavior.
Amygdala and Nucleus Accumbens:
These brain structures are primarily involved in the motivation for sexual behavior.
They do not appear to impact the physical ability to engage in sexual acts.
Research in Rats: Damage to these areas in rats results in a decreased motivation to pursue sexual behavior, while their capacity for the physical act remains intact.
Kinsey's Research
Context: In the late s, Dr. Alfred Kinsey initiated extensive large-scale surveys due to a marked absence of empirically-based information regarding human sexuality.
**Groundbreaking Findings:
His research revealed that many behaviors previously considered rare were, in fact, far more common than generally believed.
Women were found to be as interested and experienced in sexual activity as men.
Both males and females engage in masturbation, and it was determined that this behavior does not result in negative health consequences.
Homosexual acts were reported to be relatively common across the population.
Impact: Kinsey's work was highly influential in shaping the trajectory of future research into human sexual behavior and motivation.
Kinsey Scale: He developed a scale to categorize an individual's sexual orientation, moving beyond simple dichotomies.
Masters and Johnson’s Research
Study Design: Masters and Johnson conducted pioneering observational studies of physiological responses during sexual behavior.
They directly observed individuals engaging in various sexual activities in a laboratory setting.
They measured a range of physiological variables, including blood pressure and respiration rate.
They also quantified sexual arousal using measures such as vaginal lubrication and penile tumescence.
The Sexual Response Cycle: Based on their observations, they identified four distinct phases of the human sexual response cycle:
Excitement Phase: The initial arousal stage, characterized by physiological changes such as penile erection in males and vaginal lubrication in females.
Plateau Phase: A period of increased sexual arousal leading up to orgasm, marked by intensified swelling and blood flow to the labia minora in females and the appearance of pre-ejaculatory fluid in males.
Orgasm Phase: The climax of sexual excitement, involving rhythmic muscle contractions throughout the body and ejaculation in males.
Resolution Phase: The body's gradual return to an unaroused, resting state.
Sexual Orientation
Definition: Sexual orientation refers to an individual's enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or erotic attraction to another individual.
Characteristics: It is considered a relatively stable characteristic of a person and is not a conscious choice or preference.
Prevalence: Between and of the adult population globally identifies as homosexual.
**Factors Determining Sexual Orientation:
Earlier Beliefs: It was previously thought that differences in socialization and familial experiences were the primary causes of variations in sexual orientation.
Current Understanding: Modern research indicates that these experiences can be very similar for both homosexual and heterosexual individuals.
Genetic and Biological Mechanisms: Growing evidence suggests significant genetic and biological underpinnings; research has identified differences in brain structure and function between heterosexual and homosexual individuals.
Gender Identity
Definition: Gender identity is an individual's deeply felt, internal sense of being male, female, both, neither, or somewhere else along the gender spectrum.
Correspondence with Biological Sex: In most instances, an individual's gender identity aligns with their biological sex assigned at birth, but this is not universally the case.
Gender Dysphoria: This is a diagnostic term encompassing individuals who experience significant distress or discomfort because their internal gender identity does not align with the gender that most people would assume they are based on their biological sex.
Diagnostic Criteria: For a diagnosis, the distress must persist for at least months and result in clinically significant distress or functional impairment.
Transgender Hormone Therapy: Involves the use of exogenous hormones to induce physical changes in an individual's body, making it appear more consistent with their affirmed gender identity (e.g., masculinizing or feminizing hormones).
Examples: Public figures like Chaz Bono (a transgender male who transitioned from female to male) and Laverne Cox (an openly transgender actress and LGBTQ+ advocate) represent and speak on issues related to gender identity and transgender experiences.
Emotion
Emotion vs. Mood
Mood:
Characterized as a more prolonged and generally less intense affective (emotional) state.
Typically does not arise in direct response to a specific, immediate event or experience.
May often be experienced without conscious recognition of its precise cause or without clear intentionality.
Emotion:
A subjective state of being that individuals frequently use to describe their immediate feelings.
Relatively intense and usually occurs as a direct response to a specific experience, event, or stimulus.
Typically consciously experienced and recognized as intentional in its immediate context.
Components of Emotion: Emotions are generally understood to be multifaceted phenomena involving:
Physiological Arousal: Changes in bodily states (e.g., heart rate, breathing).
Psychological Appraisal: A cognitive interpretation or evaluation of the situation.
Subjective Experiences: The personal feeling or interpretation of the emotion.
These components are profoundly informed and shaped by an individual's experiences, cultural background, and personal history.
Example: Toddlers often exhibit rapid shifts between intense emotions, such as extreme happiness one moment and profound sadness the next.
Theories of Emotion
James-Lange Theory:
Core Idea: This theory postulates that emotions arise directly from the perception of physiological arousal.
Sequence: An emotional stimulus is encountered (e.g., seeing a snake) This triggers specific physiological arousal (e.g., increased heart and respiration rates) The perception of these bodily changes then leads to the feeling of fear.
Cannon-Bard Theory:
Core Idea: This theory proposes that physiological arousal and the subjective emotional experience occur simultaneously and independently of one another.
Sequence: Upon encountering an emotional stimulus (e.g., seeing a snake) Both physiological arousal (e.g., increased heart rate) AND the feeling of fear are triggered at the same exact time, without one causing the other.
Empirical Findings and Criticisms:
Studies involving individuals with spinal cord injuries (who are incapable of receiving full autonomic feedback from their bodies) showed that they could still experience emotions, although some reported these emotions as less intense.
Research demonstrating that the suppression of facial expressions linked to an emotion (e.g., forcing a smile or frown) can reduce the intensity of the experienced emotion.
Conclusion: These findings collectively suggest that while physiological arousal is not strictly necessary for experiencing emotion, it significantly increases the intensity of the emotional experience.
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory:
Core Idea: This theory asserts that emotions are composed of two crucial factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive appraisal (or interpretation) of that arousal within its specific context.
Sequence: Encountering an emotional stimulus (e.g., seeing a snake) Triggers physiological arousal (e.g., palms sweating, heart racing, increased respiration) AND a cognitive assessment of the current situation (e.g., mentally labeling the arousal as 'fear') This integrated interpretation then leads to the experience of fear.
Emphasis on Cognition: Schachter and Singer believed that physiological arousal is often quite similar across various different emotions (e.g., a racing heart could signify fear, excitement, or nervousness), thus making the cognitive assessment of the situation paramount in determining the specific emotion experienced.
Lazarus’ Cognitive-Mediational Theory:
Core Idea: This theory proposes that emotions are fundamentally determined by an individual's immediate and often unconscious cognitive appraisal of the stimulus or event.
Distinct Sequence: Unlike the Schachter-Singer model, Lazarus argued that the cognitive appraisal of the situation occurs before any specific emotional label is applied or even before significant physiological arousal is fully processed. This appraisal is rapid and often outside of conscious awareness.
The Biology of Emotions
The Limbic System: This complex set of brain structures is deeply involved in mediating emotional responses and memory formation.
Hypothalamus: Plays a vital role in activating the sympathetic nervous system, which is a key component of the physiological reaction to emotional stimuli.
Thalamus: Serves as a crucial sensory relay center; its neurons project sensory information to both the amygdala (for emotional processing) and higher cortical regions (for more nuanced cognitive processing).
Amygdala: A pair of almond-shaped nuclei that are central to processing emotional information, particularly fear, and subsequently sending this information to other cortical structures.
Hippocampus: Involved in integrating emotional experiences with cognitive processes, particularly in the formation of emotional memories.
**Detailed Role of the Amygdala:
Primary Research Focus: The amygdala has been a primary subject of research concerning the biological underpinnings of emotions, with a particular emphasis on fear and anxiety.
Subnuclei: Composed of various subnuclei, the most prominent being the Basolateral Complex and the Central Nucleus.
Basolateral Complex: Possesses dense connections with diverse sensory areas of the brain. It is critical for the processes of classical conditioning and for imbuing learning and memory with emotional value.
Central Nucleus: Primarily involved in regulating attention. It establishes connections with the hypothalamus and various brain stem regions to modulate the activities of the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine systems, thereby orchestrating physiological responses to emotional events.
Facial Expression & Recognition of Emotions
Cultural Display Rules: These are culturally specific standards or norms that dictate the appropriate types and frequencies of emotional displays (e.g., suppressing or exaggerating emotions) that are acceptable within a given society.
Example: Individuals from the United States typically express negative emotions such as fear, anger, and disgust whether they are alone or in the presence of others. In contrast, individuals from Japan might only express these particular emotions when they are alone.
Universality of Facial Expressions: Despite the variation introduced by cultural display rules, research consistently shows that the recognition and production of facial expressions for certain basic emotions are remarkably universal across different cultures.
Seven Universal Facial Expressions of Emotion: These globally recognized facial expressions signal distinct emotional states:
Happiness
Surprise
Sadness
Fright (often associated with fear)
Disgust
Contempt
Anger
Facial Feedback Hypothesis:
Question: This hypothesis addresses the intriguing question of whether smiling makes an individual happy, or if being happy simply prompts a smile.
Core Premise: The facial feedback hypothesis proposes that an individual's facial expressions are not merely a reflection of their emotions but are also capable of directly influencing and shaping their emotional experiences.
Supporting Evidence: Studies have shown that depressed individuals reported a decrease in their depressive symptoms after receiving Botox injections that paralyzed their frowning muscles, suggesting a direct link between facial expression and emotional state.
Implied Sequence: Emotional stimulus Facial expression Physiological arousal Emotional experience.