Comprehensive Notes: The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492

1.1 The Americas

  • LEARNING OBJECTIVES

    • Locate major American civilizations before the Spanish.

    • Discuss their cultural achievements.

    • Discuss differences/similarities in Native lifestyles, religions, and customs.

  • GLOBAL CONTEXT

    • Globalization accelerated with Europeans accessing Eastern riches (spices, silk).

    • Crusades (1095–1291) increased demand for East goods and initiated early slavery (Slavic people).

    • Riskier Silk Road led to search for ocean routes, initiating the Atlantic World.

    • West Africa became central as Europeans began the slave trade, utilizing Africans and Native peoples.

  • MIGRATION AND SETTLEMENT OF THE AMERICAS

    • Land bridge Beringia (Asia-N. America) existed 9{,}000{--}15{,}000 years ago, allowing southward migration.

    • Diverse societies developed from Arctic to South America.

    • Genetic evidence supports Asian-Native American links.

    • Coastal migration by boat also contributed to early settlements.

    • 10{,}000 years ago: domestication of plants/animals, agriculture, enabling permanent settlements.

  • MESOAMERICA AND THE OLMECS (THE MOTHER CULTURE)

    • Spanned Panama to central Mexico; shared cultural traits despite diversity.

    • Olmec traits: polytheistic religion, male/female deities, blood sacrifice.

    • Maize domesticated by 5000 ext{ BCE}, formed dietary base.

    • Achievements: mathematical system, large architecture, eclipses/solstices calendar, the only known writing system in Western Hemisphere.

    • Established long-distance trade, creating an elite class.

    • Infrastructure: aqueducts, monumental heads, La Venta pyramid; cacao beans as currency.

    • Key deities: rain god, maize god, feathered serpent.

  • THE MAYA AND TEOTIHUACAN

    • Teotihuacan (central Mexico): Major urban center (>$100,000$ residents by 500 ext{ CE}); over 2{,}200 apartment compounds, > 100 temples.

    • Maya (flourished 2000 ext{ BCE} to 900 ext{ CE}): developed written language, calendar, sophisticated mathematical system.

    • City-states: Copán, Tikal, Chichén Itzá; built temples, pyramids, observatories.

    • Decline around 900 ext{ CE} due to environmental factors (drought) and soil limitations.

  • THE AZTECS (MEXICA) AND TENOCHTITLÁN

    • Cortés found wealthy capital of Tenochtitlán in the 16th century.

    • Founded 1325 on Lake Texcoco island; >200{,}000 inhabitants by 1519, largest Western Hemisphere city.

    • Well-planned, clean city: specialized neighborhoods, trash collection, markets, aqueducts.

    • Agriculture: chinampas (floating gardens) and lake irrigation.

    • Social/religious structure: warrior noble/priestly class; frequent human sacrifice for sun god and agricultural productivity.

    • Omens of Spanish arrival described in Florentine Codex.

  • THE INCA EMPIRE

    • Location: Andean region, Pacific coast, 2{,}500 miles (Colombia to Chile) at high altitudes.

    • Administrative efficiency: vast road system (no wheels) with stone construction; chasquis (relay runners).

    • Quipu: knotted strings for recording information (no writing system).

    • Gold for sun god Inti (“sweat” of the sun); welfare-like storage system.

    • Mita labor tax: peasants contributed monthly labor to public works.

    • Agriculture: terrace farming; crops included corn, beans, squash, quinoa, potato.

    • Social structure: ruling elite, peasants paid labor tithes.

    • Machu Picchu: ceremonial city (discovered 1911), built \sim 1450 CE, abandoned \sim 100 years later.

  • NATIVE AMERICANS IN NORTH AMERICA

    • Distinction: urbanized/complex (Mesoamerica, Andean) vs. dispersed N. American cultures.

    • Pueblo peoples (southwestern U.S.): Mogollon, Hohokam, Anasazi; permanent stone/mud housing; Anastazi cliff dwellings; Chaco Canyon hub.

    • Cahokia (Mississippi River): Urban center (\sim 1100 ext{ CE}) with > 10{,}000 residents and 120 mounds; declined after 1300 ext{ CE} due to resource limits.

    • Hopewell culture (Ohio Valley, 1st-5th century CE): small hamlets, mound-building, long-distance trade.

    • Eastern Woodlands tribes (e.g., Iroquois, Cherokee): smaller, autonomous clans/tribes; matriarchal tendencies, women influenced leadership.

    • Gender roles: women cultivated crops; men hunted/protected.

    • Interactions with Europeans: land-use conflicts (community vs. private ownership).

  • NOTES ON CONTEXT AND CONNECTIONS

    • Diverse American civilizations shaped by geography, climate, resources.

    • Indigenous patterns set complex backdrop for European encounters.

True or False Facts (The Americas):

  • True/False: The Olmec developed the first known writing system in the Western Hemisphere. (True)

  • True/False: The Maya empire flourished until its decline around 1500 ext{ CE}, primarily due to warfare. (False - declined \sim 900 ext{ CE} due to environmental factors)

  • True/False: The Inca Empire used a system of knotted strings called quipu to record information. (True)

  • True/False: North American Native tribes generally shared the European concept of private land ownership. (False - differed significantly)

1.2 Europe on the Brink of Change

  • LEARNING OBJECTIVES

    • Describe European societies involved in conversion, conquest, commerce.

    • Discuss motives/mechanisms of early European exploration.

  • THE MEDIEVAL BACKDROP

    • Fall of Roman Empire (476 CE) to Renaissance (late 14th century).

    • Political fragmentation, no centralized power; feudal structure (lords, knights, serfs).

    • Christian Church: unified, powerful, preserved knowledge.

  • THE BLACK DEATH AND ITS AFTERMATH

    • 1340s: bubonic plague caused massive mortality (\sim 1/3 of Europe's population).

    • Devastated villages; led to social/economic upheaval, setting stage for change.

  • CHURCH, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY

    • Great Schism (1054): split Christianity into Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox).

    • Catholic Church: dominant international power in Western Europe; controlled literacy/education.

    • Sacraments linked life stages to church; priests wielded spiritual/social influence; pope held political clout.

    • Latin as scholarly language; most peasants illiterate.

  • ISLAM, CHRISTIANITY, AND THE REMAINING CHALLENGES

    • Islam spread rapidly after 622 CE across North Africa, Middle East, Spain.

    • Crusades (1095): aimed to reclaim Jerusalem/Holy Lands, motivated by religious zeal, adventure, gain.

    • Mixed outcomes: Jewish persecution, Muslim-Christian tensions, but expanded maritime trade and exposure to luxury goods.

  • JERUSALEM, CRUSADES, AND THE RECONQUISTA

    • Jerusalem: religiously significant for Jews, Christians, Muslims.

    • Crusades briefly retook Jerusalem (1099), but Christian control ended 1291.

    • Facilitated cross-cultural exchange and exposed Europeans to Asian goods/techniques.

  • THE IBERIAN PENINSULA AS A SPRINGBOARD FOR GLOBAL EXPANSION

    • Norse reached N. America centuries before Columbus; sustained contact via Portugal/Spain.

    • Portugal (Prince Henry the Navigator): pioneered Atlantic exploration, African coast trade using caravels.

    • Spain united under Ferdinand/Isabella (1469), set groundwork for overseas exploration.

    • Isabella’s Inquisition (1480): targeted unconverted Jews/Muslims, linking religious aims with political expansion.

  • MOTIVES FOR EUROPEAN EXPLORATION

    • "God, glory, and gold."

    • Religious zeal (converts, Holy Land aims); monarchs sought prestige, territorial expansion, new populations for conversion.

    • Curiosity and economic opportunity (wealth, exotic lands).

    • Columbus (1492): blend of religious and wealth-seeking goals (western route to East).

  • EUROPEAN MASTERY OF GEOPOLITICAL CHANGE

    • Knowledge of round Earth informed exploration (Eratosthenes' estimates known).

    • Columbus underestimated Earth's circumference, leading to voyage to Americas.

    • 1492: Columbus landed in Bahamas (San Salvador) with three caravels.

  • THE IBERIAN AND ITALIAN CONTEXT OF TRADE AND EXPANSION

    • Venice/Genoa dominated East-West trade via costly, risky Silk Road (middlemen).

    • Western sea route to Asia offered direct access to spices/wealth without Muslim intermediaries.

True or False Facts (Europe):

  • True/False: The Black Death led to a decrease in social mobility due to the massive loss of life. (False - it contributed to social and economic upheaval that set the stage for change, implying increased mobility in some ways post-plague).

  • True/False: The Crusades primarily benefited Christian Europe by permanently reclaiming Jerusalem from Muslim control. (False - Jerusalem was retaken but not held permanently; benefits came more from trade and exposure).

  • True/False: Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal was instrumental in pioneering Atlantic exploration. (True)

  • True/False: Columbus accurately calculated the Earth's circumference, which was key to his successful voyage to Asia. (False - he underestimated it, leading to the unexpected discovery of the Americas).

1.3 West Africa and the Role of Slavery

  • LEARNING OBJECTIVES

    • Locate major West African empires.

    • Discuss roles of Islam and Europe in slave trade.

  • GEOGRAPHY AND SOCIETY OF WEST AFRICA

    • From Mauritania to Democratic Republic of Congo; varied climates (rainforest, savanna, dry regions).

    • Villages of extended families; polygyny widespread; wealth tied to kin, wives, children, enslaved dependents.

    • Five major rivers (Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta, Congo) supported trade and movement.

    • Hundreds of dialects; “we” (village/family) vs. “they” (outsiders).

  • MAJOR WEST AFRICAN EMPIRES AND ISLAM

    • Ghana Empire (c. 750 CE): Soninke rulers taxed trans-Saharan trade; gold funded power; salt mines.

    • Mali Empire (c. 1200 CE): Sundiata Keita; Islam prominent in court; Timbuktu became center of education, commerce, slave trade.

    • Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage to Mecca caused price inflation.

    • Songhai Empire (1500s): eclipsed Mali under Sunni Ali; Gao became strong center.

  • THE ROLE OF SLAVERY IN AFRICA AND THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE

    • Slavery existed in Africa before European contact, differing from later racial slavery.

    • Forms: servitude for protection/famine, debt servitude, tribal bonds; chattel slavery in Nile valley/trade routes.

    • Arab and later European slave trades connected Africa to Mediterranean/Europe.

  • THE NORTH ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE AND THE NEW WORLD SLAVERY SYSTEM

    • Portuguese imported enslaved Africans to Madeira (1444) for sugar plantations.

    • European colonies in New World demanded labor for tobacco, sugar, rice, cotton, dramatically expanding slave trade.

    • Atlantic slave trade led to race-based, permanent, and hereditary system in New World.

    • Reasons for racial slavery: religious views, economic incentives for permanent labor, scapegoating of Africans.

  • ROUTES AND CONSEQUENCES

    • Most enslaved Africans went to Brazil/Caribbean, also N. America and East African coast.

    • Established permanent, race-based slavery contributed to long-lasting social/political inequalities in Americas.

True or False Facts (West Africa):

  • True/False: Before European contact, slavery in Africa was primarily race-based and permanent. (False - existed in various forms, not primarily race-based or permanent in the same way as New World chattel slavery).

  • True/False: The Mali Empire's wealth was largely derived from its control over the gold trade. (True)

  • True/False: The Trans-Saharan trade routes were primarily used for exchanging raw materials and not people. (False - people were also traded).

Things to Remember:

  • The Americas: Featured advanced civilizations (Olmec, Maya, Aztec, Inca) with complex social, political, and agricultural systems. North American peoples were diverse, adapting to varied environments, often with community-based land use contrasted with European private ownership.

  • Europe: Transitioned from fragmented feudalism, influenced by the powerful Church, through crises like the