Historical Development and Independence of Latin America

The Spanish Conquest and the Colonial Labor System

• Timeline of the Conquest: It took several generations following the first voyage of Columbus for the large indigenous civilizations, such as the Aztecs and the Incas, to fall. In the interim, Spaniards steadily seized control over the Caribbean, exploring and establishing new territories.

• Transformation of Strategy (1512): Rather than enslaving the indigenous populations exclusively, the Spanish crown hoped to compose wealthy kingdoms and transform them into tribute systems by $1512$. The goal was to have the native populations work as laborers and pay taxes to Spain rather than being enslaved outright.

• Administrative and Labor Institutions:

  • Encomienda: This was a colonial assistance system that designated indigenous people as tribute to Spanish settlers. It was essentially a labor system of forced labor that indigenous communities were required to pay to Spain.

  • Adelantados: These were the individuals in charge of settling new territories. They often became the primary beneficiaries of the encomienda system.

  • Mita: This was a draft system for labor enforced during the colonial period.

• The Fall of the Aztecs and Incas:

  • The Maya: While the Maya civilization still existed during the conquest, they were not as powerful an empire as the Aztecs. Their conquest took more time to finalize compared to the smoother fall of the Aztecs and Incas.

  • The Aztec Empire: The Aztecs initially recaptured their capital and killed occupying Spaniards. However, the Spaniards returned with indigenous allies, specifically a group called the Tlaxcala. This alliance enabled the Spanish to successfully overtake the Aztec empire.

  • The Inca (Andean) Empire: By $1532$, the emperor of the Incan empire died of smallpox. His death sparked a battle for the crown between his sons. This political instability allowed Spanish conquistadors to take over the empire.

• The Conquistadors: These were typically men in their $20$s or $30$s who were trained for combat and seeking wealth. They aimed to make names for themselves and believed their conquests were justified by a perceived moral superiority over indigenous populations.

Social and Racial Hierarchies in Colonial Latin America

• Political Categories and Governance: The colonies were divided into two distinct political categories meant for self-governance:

  • The Republic of the Indians

  • The Republic of the Spaniards

  • While indigenous communities were semi-autonomous and governed themselves to an extent, a Spanish governor oversaw each region.

• The Middle Passage: This refers to the months-long sea voyage between the Old World and the New World. Between the $15$th and $19$th centuries, an estimated $11,000,000$ enslaved Africans were transported via this route. A significant number of these individuals were brought to Latin America, diversifying the population and forming a reliance on slave labor.

• The Casta System (1700s): By the $1700$s, a complex multiracial social hierarchy was imposed by the Spaniards:

  • Spaniards: Held the top position of superiority.

  • Indios: The indigenous population.

  • Mestizos: Individuals of mixed Spanish and indigenous descent.

  • Negros: Enslaved Africans.

  • Mulatos: Individuals of mixed Spanish and African descent.

  • Logic of the Hierarchy: Status was determined by the concept of "purity of blood." The more European or "white" a person's blood was perceived to be, the higher their rank in the system. Any perceived "taint" or mixture with other groups resulted in a lower social standing.

Religion, the Church, and the Indian Inquisition

• The Catholic Church: Shortly after the conquest, the Catholic Church became a dominant institution. Missions were sent to convert indigenous people to Christianity.

• The Indian Inquisition: This institution was responsible for religious orthodoxy. It involved the rooting out of indigenous cultural and religious practices through punishments and torture. This was part of the effort to align indigenous populations with Spanish religious values.

• Religious Syncretism: Despite the Inquisition, indigenous people engaged with Christianity creatively. They adjusted theology and religious practices, leading to a slow combination of indigenous beliefs and Christianity.

The Road to Independence ($1808$–$1826$)

• Rapid Decolonization: Between $1808$ and $1826$, nearly all of colonial Latin America—except for Cuba and Puerto Rico—left Spanish control.

• European Instability (The Bourbon Reforms):

  • By the end of the $16$th century, the Spanish Empire's military and economic power was diminishing.

  • The War of Spanish Succession: Placed the French House of Bourbon (specifically Philip V) on the Spanish throne.

  • Bourbon Reforms: Under Charles III, these reforms sought to strengthen the Spanish crown's power. They restructured taxes to extract more wealth from Latin America and adjusted colonial law.

  • Criollos vs. Peninsulares: Criollos (American-born Spaniards) were frustrated by the Bourbon reforms because the crown attempted to limit their power and redirect wealth to Spain. Peninsulares (Spanish-born Spaniards) remained at the top of the social ladder, creating tension between the two groups.

• The Enlightenment: This intellectual movement (spanning the $17$th to $19$th centuries) emphasized rationalism, progress, and liberty. These ideals spread through port cities like Mexico City and Lima, influencing revolutionary thought.

• The Haitian Revolution ($1791$–$1804$):

  • Triggered by the French Revolution and the Declaration of the Rights of Man.

  • In $1791$, a slave revolt began in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (modern-day Haiti).

  • Led by general Toussaint L'Ouverture, it became the largest slave uprising in history.

  • The revolution ended in $1804$ with the abolition of slavery and Haitian independence. This served as a critical example to Latin America that independence and racial equality were achievable.

• The Napoleonic Wars: Napoleon Bonaparte took power in France in $1799$ and occupied Spain in $1808$. This regional instability in Europe weakened the imperial grip on Latin American colonies.

Regional Independence Movements

• Mexico and Central America:

  • Phase 1: In $1810$, priest Miguel Hidalgo delivered the "Cry of Dolores," appealing to the poor and rural populations. He was executed in $1811$.

  • Phase 2: Father Jose Maria Morelos led the movement with the goal of ending slavery and the casta system. He declared independence in $1813$ but was captured in $1815$.

  • Phase 3: Augustin de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero formed an alliance known as the Plan de Iguala ($1821$). The plan called for a constitutional monarchy, equal rights for criollos and peninsulares, and a unified religion. In $1822$, Iturbide was proclaimed Emperor of Mexico.

  • Central America: The Federal Republic of Central America was formed in $1823$, comprising Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. It lasted until the $1840$s.

• South America:

  • Simon Bolivar: Known as "The Liberator," Bolivar was a Venezuelan military officer who led uprisings starting in $1817$. He secured independence for Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Peru.

  • Jose de San Martin: An Argentine leader who liberated Argentina, Chile, and Peru.

  • Loyalist Resistance: Much of the fighting was against residents of Latin America who remained loyal to the Spanish crown; only about $1/10$ of the loyalist forces were actually from Spain.

• Brazil:

  • Controlled by Portugal. When Napoleon occupied Portugal in $1807$, King Joao VI moved the Portuguese court to Brazil, elevated its status to a kingdom equal to Portugal.

  • When the King returned to Portugal, he left his son, Pedro I, in charge. In $1822$, Pedro I declared Brazil independent as a constitutional monarchy.

Consequences of Independence

• Economic Struggles: New nations lost established trade routes with Spain. They often sought loans from European states, leading to high levels of debt.

• Political Instability: National identities and borders were slow to form. The military became the most stable institution in many regions due to its role in the independence wars.

• Social Continuity and Change:

  • Creole elites sought to maintain their social power despite the end of colonial rule.

  • Slavery: Independence did not immediately end slavery. Mexico and Central America—less reliant on slave labor—emancipated enslaved people quickly. However, locations like Colombia and Venezuela did not achieve emancipation for several decades.

Questions & Discussion

• Student Question: Was there a reason mixed people were considered less than others, for example, why were those mixed with black and Spanish considered less than black people?

• Response: The simple answer is race. The more complex answer is that Spaniards viewed race through the lens of "blood purity." The more European/White blood a person had, the higher their status. Any "tainted" blood from other groups lowered a person's standing in the hierarchy, regardless of logic.

• Student Question: When did the Incan emperor die?

• Response: The Incan emperor died in $1532$.