Exam Prep

Samba

Different forms
Call and response
Story samba
Origins from carnival
Allegories and satires
African influences
Black middle classes
Promenade
Respectable samba
1912 - recordings
1923 - radio play
Favela samba schools

Tango

19th century origins
Arrables
milonga/habanera
Lunfardo
Influences from Africans, Italians, Germans (bandeon)
Slower pace
Sensual
Too sexy for women
Dance halls
Prostitutes
Slumming
1900 - cafés
1910 - Europe
Church condemnation
Pope
Mainstream
Professors
Lyrics cleaned up
Radio
Clothes
Irene and Vernon castle

Carlos Gardel

Greatest tango singer of all time
He gave tango its ‘voice’
Transformed tango from a rough, street-style instrumental genre into a polished, international musical phenomenon with emotional, romantic lyrics
His recordings and films helped popularize tango worldwide, especially in France and across Latin America

Víctor Raul Haya de la Torre

Peruvian political leader, philosopher
Job cuzco
Learned Quecha
He went into exile in the 1920s, during which time he developed his pan-latin American political vision
Founder of APRA - ideas were a mix of anti-imperialism, social justice, Latin American unity and democratic reforms

Getúlio Vargas

Served as both dictator and democratically elected president of Brazil
He was called the father of the poor because he crafted an image as a champion of workers and the marginalized
He was the dictator of Estado Novo - he centralized authority, suppressed opposition, censored the press, and promoted industrialization

Jacobo Arbenz

He was a Guatemalan military officer and politician who served as President from 1951 to 1954
He had bold agrarian reform programs aiming to redistribute unused land from large landowners to landless peasants
Arbenz’s government wanted to reduce Guatemala’s dependence on foreign capital and promote national development, pushing for infrastructure improvements and tried to diversify the economy
The land reforms directly threatened US business interests and the CIA orchestrated a coup d’etat, that overthrew Arbenz in 1954 replacing him with a military dictatorship

Ernesto Che Guevara

Argentine born doctor, Marxist revolutionary, guerilla leader and writer
Cuban revolution - became a close ally of Fidel Castro and a key leader in the Cuba revolution, played a critical military role in the guerilla campaign that overthrew the US backed dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista
Post Cuban revolution - he held important position like, minister of industry
President of the national bank and international diplomat for Cuba, pushing for rapid industrialization, land reform and alignment with the Soviet block
He believed that Latin America could only be liberated through armed struggle against imperialism and local oligarchies, famously saying the goal was to create ‘two, three, many Vietnam’ in Latin America
He became a symbol of resistance against US influence and neocolonialism in Latin America
His ideas on guerilla warfare and revolution inspired numerous insurgencies across Latin America in the 1960s and 1970s from Nicaragua to Colombia

School of the Americas

It was a military school
Trained in counter-terrorism
US military training institution
Train Latin American military personnel in: counterinsurgency, military intelligence, physiological warfare, anti-communist operations and interrogation techniques
US aimed to contain leftist movement in Latin America, fearing revolutions like the Cuban Revolution would spread across the region
SOA is heavily criticized because many of its graduates were implicated in coups, political repression, torture, assassinations, and massacres during the dirty wars

Disappeared

Refers to the thousands of people who were forcibly taken by military regimes or death squads and never seen again
These people were: political dissidents, activists, students, labour organizers, indigenous leaders or even ordinary citizens accused of supporting leftist movements
They were abducted, detained in secret, tortured and often murdered with their bodies hidden to cover up the crime
Argentina - around 30,000 people disappeared under the military junta
Chile (under Pinochet’s regime) - over 3,000 killed or disappeared
Guatemala (civil war): tens of thousands disappeared, many from Indigenous communities
El Salvador (civil war): thousands disappeared at the hands of government forces and deaths squads

Narcoterrorism

Refers to the use of violence, intimidation and terror tactics by drug cartels or drug trafficking organization to protect their operations, influence politics and fight law enforcement
As cartels grew richer and more powerful, they began: attacking police, judges and politicians, using car bombs, assassinations and mass killings to terrorize society, financing guerilla groups or forming paramilitary forces to protect their routes, intimidating the media to control narratives
Narcoterrorism eroded state authority and legitimacy, especially in rural areas
It blurred the lines between organized crime and political violence, making it harder for states to respond
Thousands of civilians were killed in the crossfire, caught between cartels, guerillas, paramilitaries and state forces

Zapatistas

People who are at the centre of this Mayan, Tzeltal, Tzotzil, Ch’ol and Tojolob’al
This revolution is really tied to NAFTA
It began on January 1, 1994 - the first day NAFTA treaty came into effect, New Year’s Day is a slow news day
Some violence but not a lot, gained a platform to talk about the things they wanted to do
Chiapas is a poor region, coffee is very popular, large plantation, Indigenous people worked there, casual labour, worked until international coffee agreement collapsed
1970-2000 - Chiapas has an economic crisis, one of the things people did to deal with the coffee crisis is turn coffee plantations into ranches, fewer people and different skills to run a ranch, disrupt labour market,
Huge agrarian reform, pillars of support, organized farmers into national organizations, large amounts of land
They were one of the first revolutionary groups to use the internet to get their message out, newspapers were tight-leashed by the government,
La jornada were independent and printed out the Zapatistas message, issued various revolutions

Coca

Altitude
Hunger divination

1860 to 1910 legal coca commerce
Tonics
Neurasthenia
Drinks
Pharmaceutical companies
Remedy for many conditions
Famous proponents
Heroin
Respiratory illnesses
Prisons
Chinese community
It became one of the most lucrative exports for criminal organizations, it rivalled legal exports in value, especially in rural impoverished areas

Indigenismo

They were politically excluded from power and decision-making
Economically marginalized, often working as rural labourers or living in poverty
Culturally oppressed with efforts to erase their languages, traditions and identities
Dispossessed of land as states and corporations took Indigenous territories for mining, agriculture, oil and logging
Political activism: indigenous movements gained strength, demanding autonomy, land rights and respect

Good neighbour policy

A diplomatic initiative that aimed to promote cooperation and friendship between the United States and Latin American countries, avoid military intervention and promote peaceful relations in the Western Hemisphere and strengthen regional ties in response to the growing tensions of WWII and to counter European and Japanese influence in the Americas
It was US interventionism in Latin America before the 1930s, particularly the use of military and control, which created hostility in the region
Economic interest, as Latin American markets and resources became increasingly important, especially with the growing need for resources during WWII
The rise of global fascism and the desire to keep the Western Hemisphere united against potential Axis powers, during WWII
It was composed of a non-intervention, where the US promised not to intervene military in Latin American Affairs
Economic cooperation - Roosevelt sought to build stronger economic ties with Latin American countries, offering more trade opportunities and loans
Cultural exchange and diplomacy - there was a push to improve cultural relations, including public diplomacy campaigns to improve the US image in Latin America
It improved relations - for many Latin American countries, the policy marked an improvement in US relations
Economic benefits - Latin American countries benefited from increased trade with the US, which needed resources for WWII and sought to maintain friendly relationships with its neighbours to the south
Political stability - the policy helped create a sense of political stability in the region, as US support for certain governments was less overt and direct compared to earlier years
Discontent in the long term - while it was seen as a positive shift, many Latin Americans still felt US influence was too strong, the US continued to intervene economically, and many countries did not achieve true autonomy

United fruit company

A major US based multinational corporation that had a profound impact in countries like Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica and Panama
One of the largest and most powerful fruit companies in the world
It primarily focused on growing, exporting and selling bananas
They have economic control - the UFC controlled vast territories in several countries, it monopolized the banana industry and other agricultural exports, it often had more power and influence than the governments of these countries, controlling key infrastructures and influencing local economies
Political influence and corruption - the UFC’s size and wealth allowed it to exert immense political influence, especially through bribery and corruption, it often supported governments that would protect its interests, even if those governments were authoritarian or undemocratic, it also played a key role in shaping political decisions
Economic exploitation - the UFC exemplified the economic exploitations of Latin America by foreign companies, it controlled the flow of export commodities and helped keep these nations dependent on a single agricultural product
Political manipulation - the UFC’s involvement in political corruption and coups, particularly in Guatemala, highlights the way foreign corporations often undermined Latin American sovereignty and democracy to protect their own interests
Cultural and historical legacy - the legacy and its role in creating banana republics persists in cultural memory of Latin America, the company’s actions helped foster resentment toward US imperialism, a sentiment that fuelled revolutionary movements and anti-US rhetoric in the decades that followed

History will absolve me

Famous speech by Fidel Castro
Condemnation of Batista’s dictatorship: Castro accused Batista and his government of betraying the Cuban people, exploiting the country’s resources and maintaining a regime of corruption, poverty and inequality
Social injustice in Cuba: Castro described the massive disparity between the wealthy elite, including US companies and the impoverished masses, he blamed this inequality on the political system which he claimed had long been controlled by foreign interests
A call for revolution: he concluded the speech with the declaration ‘history will absolve me’ implying that the revolutionary cause would ultimately triumph and that future generations would judge him and his comrades as heroes for their fight against tyranny
A manifesto for the future: Castro laid out the basic principles for a future Cuban government which would - redistribute land to the peasants, establish universal education,and end political corruption and replace the existing government with one that represented the people

Salvador Allende

Ran with the leftist popular alliance
He was the first democratically elected Marxist president in Chile
His government focused on socialist reforms, including nationalization of key industries like copper, land redistribution and expanding social welfare programs
He aimed to create a more equitable society by empowering the poor and working classes
His presidency faced strong economic instability, political opposition and interference from the US government
His government was overthrown in a military coup led by Pinochet with US support

Lola la Chata

Known for her contribution to traditional music and the rural folk music scene in Mexico
She was a recognized figure in the ranchera genre, characterized by its emotional ballads, she became known for her distinctive voice, which resonated with audiences and made her a beloved figure in Mexican folk music
Cultural impact - as a symbol of the traditional Mexican woman, her work in rachera music and popular films made her a key figure in shaping the national identity during a time of modernization and social change in post-revolution
Public persona - Lola La Chata’s nickname came from her distinctive physical appearance, specifically her face, and it became part of her charm, making her an easily identifiable public figure
Legacy - not as globally renowned as some other Mexican artists, Lola la Chata remains an important figure within regional music circles, her work continues to influence later generations of Mexican musicians and contributed to the continuation of traditional Mexican music

Narcocorrido

Themes: narcocorridos often tell stories about drug lords, smugglers, cartels and the violent world of the drug trade, the lyrics may glorify drug traffickers and their actions, romanticizing their power, wealth and resistance to law enforcement
Music style - narcocorridos are a subgenre of corridos, a traditional Mexican musical form that uses narrative storytelling to convey important cultural or political messages
Cultural significance - narcocorridos reflect the rise of powerful drug cartels in countries like Mexico, particularly from the 1980s through the early 21st century, these songs provide insight into the growing influence of cartels and the ways in which they are romanticized in popular culture, they also served as a form of expression for many marginalized communities in northern Mexico and other regions affected by the violence and economic hardship associated with the drug trade
Controversy and criticism - narcocorridos have been highly controversial, especially due to their portrayal of illegal activities and their glorification of violence and drug trafficking, government and law enforcement agencies, especially in Mexico and the US have sought to curb the popularity of narcocorridos due to their potential influence on public opinion and inspire violence

Subcomandante Marcos

He was a spokesperson and leader of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation, a revolutionary group in Chipas, Mexico, that gained international attention in the 1990s
He became famous for leading the 1994 Zapatista uprising which coincided with the implementation of NAFTA and for his critique of globalization, neoliberalism, and social inequality
Marco's charismatic leadership and eloquent writings, often published in the form of communiqués, positioned him as a symbol of resistance against the Mexican government and global economic forces
Marcos became widely recognized, he remained a mysterious figure rarely appearing in public without his trademark ski mask,
His influence spread beyond Mexico, inspiring leftist movements around the world
His legacy is deeply tied to the Zapatista movement, which continues to promote autonomy, indigenous rights and alternative forms of governance

APRA

Failure of guano
Defeat in war of the pacific
Introspection
University of San Marcos
Middle classes
Student leaders
Labour and students
Universal popular Gonzalez Prada
Spark
1923-Sacred Heart of Jesus
Freedom of religion
Demonstrations
Haya de la Torre in exile
Mexican Revolution
1931-elections
Repression
APRA at present

Jorge Ubico

He was a military dictatorship of Guatemala known for his authoritarian rule and strong ties to US interests
His regime was marked by harsh repression, labour exploitation and the consolidation of power through a cult of personality
Ubico’s government was characterized by strict control over the economy, especially agriculture, where he supported large landowners and foreign companies like the UFC
His policies led to significant social unrest, especially among indigenous population and workers who faced forced labour and poor conditions
He implemented some modernization projects such as infrastructure improvements his rule was increasingly unpopular due to his autocratic governance and lack of political freedoms
Ubico was forced to resign, ending a period of dictorial control and paving the way for reformist governments in Guatemala

Fidel Castro

He led the Cuban revolution that overthrew the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista
He established a communist government and became a symbol of anti-imperialism and revolutionary change in Latin America
Castro’s government implemented significant social reforms, including land redistribution, nationalization of industries and expansion of healthcare and education
His policies were heavily influenced by Marxist-Leninist ideology, which led to strong support from the Soviet Union but also resulting in tensions with the US
Castro became both a hero to some for stranding up to US imperialism and a controversial figure due to his authoritarianism and suppression of political dissent
He remained in power until 2008 when he stepped down due to health issues, leaving behind a profound legacy in Latin American politics and global geopolitics

Alliance for progress

Idea was if Latin American nation had good economies, no one would want revolutions
Based on theory of take-off - have enough investment, it would become industrial
Tried commodity price guarantees
The green revolution - idea was to modernize agriculture, it meant that in modernization of agriculture smallholders could not invest in the things they needed
Eliminated a lot of farmers from being competitive
Give military aid
Many countries become more inclined to militarization, powerful armies, have lots of resources
Concentration of land
Becomes more political - army becomes more powerful, people were kicked off their land, forced into cities political turmoil

General Augusto Pinochet

He was a Chilean military leader who came to power after leading a coup d’etat that overthrew the democratically elected Salvador Allende
Pinochet’s regime, was marked by brutal repression, including widespread human right abuses such as torture, disappearances and executions of political opponents
After the coup, Pinochet established a military dictatorship and implemented neoliberal economic reforms with the support of economists like Milton Friedman
His government focused on privatization, deregulation, and reducing the role of the state in the economy, which resulted in economic growth but also increased inequality
Pinochet’s rule was strongly supported by US authorities during the Cold War, as his anti-communist stance aligned with US interests in Latin America
His regime faced both domestic and international criticism for its authoritarianism and repression
Pinochet stepped down but remained a controversial figure in Chile, where his legacy is deeply divided
Despite his role in transforming the Chilean economy, his human rights violation continue to shape debates about his legacy

Upper Huallaga valley

It is a region in Peru, located in the Andes foothills, known for its significant role in the drug trade
As demand for cocaine grew, it became a focal point for drug cartels, particularly during the rise of the Medellín and Cali cartels in Colombia
This led to significant economic and social transformation in the region, with many local farmers to coca cultivation as a profitable alternative to traditional crops
The growth of the drug trade in the valley contributed to violence, armed conflict and the presence of insurgent groups, most notably the Shining Path, that aligned with drug traffickers in the region
The Peruvian government and international forces including the US launched efforts to eradicate coca cultivation, but the area remained a key player in the cocaine trade
It became an emblematic of the intersection of drugs, violence and poverty in Latin America, particularly as the region’s drug production had significant social, political and economic impacts on both Peru and the broader region

Sendero Luminoso

Also called the shining path
Took a quote from Mariategui
They were ultra orthodox as communists
They reject Cuba
Looking to the rise of Mao as a model
Saw parallels between China and Peru before the war
They believed that there are five stages of revolution
First they had to go into these regions to get support - develop a guerilla army
Second stage was assault on symbols
Third stage is the guerilla war in the 1980s
Fourth stage is expansion
Last stage is the collapse of the Peruvian state
Starts in the university of Huamanga - one of the poorest regions of Peru, very isolated, students were from middle class, first gen uni students,
Professor Abimael Guzmán - later Presidente Gonzalo - philosophy professor, driving force to the movement, place of government
Called him Dr. Shampoo - idea was that he was brainwashing his students
He also had a position as a personnel director for the university, appointed people loyal to him
People that worked with him had strong ties to Indigenous people and languages, movement has an Indigenous part to it
Students that graduated would get jobs teaching what they learned to local communities and begin to spread the message they were taught - mainly Indigenous people
Ayacucho was probably the poorest town - name means corner of the dead, did not have electricity, no medical facilities or personnel, working roads, on their own, the lowest literacy rate in the country, child mortality rate was 84.3%, chronic malnutrition,
1975 Peruvian government launched an agrarian reform, gave land that was too small and uncultivatable,
1980 Abimeal Guzmán decided the war should start, took a ballot box from a nearby village and burned it, first elections Peru had in years, they were ruled by military government
Sabotaged air traffic control, burnt down government sponsored tourist hotel, most acts were symbolic, some had military ramifications
Attacked the tomb of a former president
People in the communities were quite happy, felt things were more orderly, began to kill mayors (93),
Only in 1983 they actually attacked army barracks
The places that were under his reign were isolated, so It's hard to know who actually supported
1989 2.2% lived in Sendero’s control went up to 43%
Imposed curfews
Declared Marshall law - los sinchis were trained in counter-terrorism, demanded to know who helped sendero luminoso
Created a militia
Go into regions and terrorize the people living there - the sinchis - death toll was very high
Initial fight sendero luminoso had, ended up low in cost - coca plant was popular, made deals with drug traffickers
Had a protection scheme for the farmers growing the plant, and the laboratories, which is how they got money and weapons - made 30 million out of drug trade
Alberto Fujimori ran for president no one thought he would be elected, he was and in 1992 Abimeal Guzmán was arrested, put in a cage and showed off to journalists
1993 declared peace with Peruvian government, put on trial and sentenced to life in prison, caused a huge death toll, 40,000 were orphaned, over 20,000 women were widowed

Ejidos

Land that was controlled by Indigenous communities, went back to colonial structures
The system was established to redistribute land from large estates to peasant communities, giving them collective control over land for farming rather than individual ownership
The ejido system became crucial in promoting land equality and providing a means of livelihood for millions of Mexicans, but it also faced challenges
The ejidos struggled with inefficiency, underproduction and increasing pressure from government policies that encouraged privatization and commercial farming

Four freedoms

This was articulated by President Franklin Roosevelt and became a key part of US foreign policy

Freedom of Speech: the right to express opinions without government censorship or restraint
Freedom of Worship: the right to practice any religion without interference or persecution
Freedom from want: the right to an adequate standard of living, including access to food, shelter, and economic security
Freedom from fear: the right to live without the threat of violence or oppression, including the protection of personal safety and security

These were used as a basis for promoting democracy and human rights in the regions especially in the post-WWII era

Moncada

This refers to the Moncada Barracks attack led by Fidel Castro and a group of revolutionary fighters, including his brother in Cuba.
This event is a pivotal moment in Cuban history and latin american revolutionary movements
The attack was an attempt by Castro and his supporters to overthrow the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista.
The attack failed and many rebels were arrestes, including Castro, it became a symbol of resistance and the beginning of the Cuban Revolutionary.
The event is significant because it was during his trial after the attack that Castro delivered his famous speech, History will absolve me, which he outlined his revolutionary ideas and his visions for a more just Cuba
The attack sparked a larger movement that eventually led to the successful Cuban Revolution which brought Castro to power

Ayacucho

The poorest town
Name means corner of the dead,
Did not have electricity, no medical facilities or personnel, no working roads, on their own
The lowest literacy rate in the country, child mortality rate was 84.3%, chronic malnutrition
Region was a stronghold for the Sendero Luminoso, which began its armed struggle against the Peruvian government

Abimael Guzmán

He was the leader of the Sendero Luminosos, a Maoist guerilla group in Peru that sought to overthrow the government through armed struggle
He was a former philosophy professor who became the chief architect of Sendero Luminoso’s radical ideology, which was inspired by Mao Zendong’s Chinese Communist movement
Guzman led Sendero Luminoso in an intense armed insurgency against the Peruvian state, focusing particularly on areas like Ayacucho.
The group carried out violent attacks, including bombings, assassinations and massacres, in an effort to establish a communist revolution in Peru.
His tactics included targeting not only military forces but also civilians whom he viewed as class enemies
The Sendero Luminoso’s violent methods and extremist ideology led to widespread condemnation and counterattacks by the Peruvian government.
He was arrested and sentences to life imprinsonment for this role in the violence, his capture marked a significant turning point in the Peruvian internal conflict and the evential decline of Sendero Luminoso.
His legacy is marked by the devastation his insurgency caused and his role as a symbol of radical revolution in Latin America