Psychology 2e - Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology

What is Psychology?

  • Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.
  • The term psychology is derived from:
    • Psych - Soul
    • Ology - Scientific study of
  • Psychologists explore all aspects of the human experience, from brain functions to consciousness, memory, language, reasoning, personality, and mental health.

History of Psychology

  • Psychological Perspectives:
    • Structuralism: Understanding the conscious experience through introspection.
      • Wilhelm Wundt
    • Functionalism: Focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment.
      • William James
    • Psychoanalytic Theory: Focuses on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior.
      • Sigmund Freud
    • Gestalt Psychology: Focuses on humans as a whole rather than individual parts.
      • Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler
    • Behaviorism: Focuses on observing and controlling behavior.
      • Pavlov, Watson, Skinner
    • Humanism: Emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans.
      • Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

Wilhelm Wundt (Structuralism)

  • Credited as one of the founders of psychology.
  • Created the first laboratory for psychological research.
  • Emphasized structuralism, focusing on understanding the structure and characteristics of the mind through introspection.
  • Introspection: The process by which someone examines their own conscious experience to break it into its component parts.

William James (Functionalism)

  • The first American psychologist.
  • Drew from the functionality of cognitive processes, establishing functionalism.
  • Functionalism: Emphasized how mental activities contributed to basic environmental survival.

Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalytic Theory)

  • Founded psychoanalytic theory, which dominated clinical psychology for many decades.
  • Studied "hysteria" and neurosis.
  • Theorized that many of his patients’ problems arose from the unconscious mind.
  • Believed the unconscious mind could be accessed through dream analysis.
  • Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious and early childhood experiences.

Gestalt Psychology

  • Kohler, Koffka, and Wertheimer were German psychologists who immigrated to the U.S. to escape Nazi Germany.
  • Gestalt - "Whole"
  • Based on the idea that although sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts, how those parts relate to each other as a whole is often what the individual responds to in perception.
  • Ideas of Gestalt continue to influence research on sensation and perception.

Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning)

  • Discovered the concept of classical conditioning.
  • Studied conditioned reflexes in which an animal produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus (salivating in the presence of food).
  • Over time, the animal was conditioned to produce the response to a different stimulus (salivating to the sound of a bell) that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus (Food and bell became associated).

John B. Watson (Behaviorism)

  • Known as the father of behaviorism within psychology.
  • Believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible.
  • Focused on observable behavior and ways to bring that behavior under control.
  • Today, behaviorism is used in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy.

B. F. Skinner

  • Concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences.
  • Studied the principles of modifying behavior through reinforcement and punishment, which he saw as major factors in driving behavior (operant conditioning).

Abraham Maslow (Humanism)

  • Proposed a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior.
  • Maslow asserted that so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met (e.g., food, water, shelter), higher-level needs (e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate behavior.

Carl Rogers (Humanism)

  • Developed a client-centered therapy method that has been influential in clinical settings.
  • Client-centered therapy involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy session.
  • Rogers believed therapists need:
    • Unconditional positive regard
    • Genuineness
    • Empathy

The Cognitive Revolution

  • By the 1950s, new disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were emerging.
  • The mind became the new focus of scientific inquiry.
  • Noam Chomsky was very influential in beginning the cognitive revolution.
  • He believed psychology needed to incorporate mental functioning into its focus in order to fully understand human behavior.

Margaret Floy Washburn

  • First woman to earn a doctorate in Psychology
  • Researched animal behavior and published an authoritative text on the subject.

Contemporary Psychology

  • Branches of psychology:
    • Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology
    • Sensation and Perception
    • Cognitive Psychology
    • Developmental Psychology
    • Personality Psychology
    • Social Psychology
    • Health Psychology
    • Industrial-Organizational Psychology
    • Sports and Exercise Psychology
    • Clinical Psychology
    • Forensic Psychology

Biopsychology

  • Biological psychologists study how the structure and function of the nervous system generate behavior.
  • Research areas include:
    • Sensory and motor systems
    • Sleep
    • Drug use and abuse
    • Ingestive behavior
    • Reproductive behavior
    • Neurodevelopment
    • Plasticity of the nervous system
    • Biological correlates of psychological disorders

Sensation and Perception

  • This area of study focuses on both physiological aspects of sensory systems and the psychological experience of sensory information.
  • Sensation: Sensory information (sights, sounds, touch, smell).
  • Perception: Experience of the world which is influenced by where we focus our attention, our previous experiences, and our cultural backgrounds.

Developmental Psychology

  • Developmental psychology studies the physical and mental attributes of aging and maturation.
  • This can include various skills that are acquired throughout growth such as:
    • Moral Reasoning
    • Cognitive Skills
    • Social Skills
  • Jean Piaget is famous for his theories regarding changes in cognitive ability that occur as we move from infancy to adulthood.

Personality Psychology

  • Focuses on behaviors and thought patterns that are unique to each individual.
  • Studies in this field include conscious and unconscious thinking and identifying personality traits.
  • Five Factor Model: Describes personality along five dimensions.

Social Psychology

  • How individuals interact and relate with others and how such interactions can affect behavior.
  • Topics include:
    • Prejudice
    • Attraction
    • Interpersonal conflicts
    • Obedience

Health Psychology

  • Branch that focuses on how individual health is directly related or affected by biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences.
  • The biopsychosocial model suggests that health/illness is determined by an interaction of these three factors.

Clinical Psychology

  • Focuses on diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic patterns of behavior.
  • Study involves clinical therapy and counseling.
  • Cognitive-behavioral therapists take cognitive processes and behaviors into account when providing psychotherapy.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

  • Branch that applies psychological theories, principles, and research to industrial and organizational settings.
  • Involves issues related to personnel management, organizational structure, and workplace environment.

Sports & Exercise Psychology

  • Focus on psychological aspects regarding sports and physical performance.
  • Study includes motivation, performance-related anxiety, and general mental well-being.

Forensic Psychology

  • Branch of psychology dealing with the justice system.
  • Tasks of Forensic Psychologists include assessment of individuals' mental competency to stand trial, sentencing and treatment suggestions, and advisement regarding eyewitness testimonies.
  • This field of psychology requires a strong understanding of the legal system.

Careers in Psychology

  • Most careers in psychology require a PhD or a Master's degree.
  • A few career options:
    • Teaching
    • Research
    • Clinical psychologist
    • Counseling psychologist
    • Social Work
    • Corporate and Marketing jobs

Job Opportunities

  • Top Occupations Employing Graduates with a BA in Psychology (Fogg, Harrington, Harrington, & Shatkin, 2012):
    1. Mid- and top-level management (executive, administrator)
    2. Sales
    3. Social work
    4. Other management positions
    5. Human resources (personnel, training)
    6. Other administrative positions
    7. Insurance, real estate, business
    8. Marketing and sales
    9. Healthcare (nurse, pharmacist, therapist)
    10. Finance (accountant, auditor)