PCM REVIEWER

LESSON 1: WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

• Dynamic - constantly changing

• Continuous - ongoing exchange of meaning

• Adaptive - adjusts to the changes that occur

• Systematic - interacting in a cyclical order

• Transactional - transmission and reception

• Intrapersonal - the self

• Interpersonal - dyad or small group

• Public - audience communication, mass communication

  • Dynamic communication - two-person communication

  • Small group - 3-6 persons

  • Audience communication - talking to a large number of people gathered for a particular occasion

  • Mass communication - process whereby media organizations produce and transmit messages to large publics and the process by which those messages are sought, understood, and influenced by audience

• Verbal - exchange of ideas that occurs through words. This refers to written and oral.

• Nonverbal - wordless exchange of information, feelings, or thoughts

  • Paralanguage (vocalics) - pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality

  • Action language (kinesics) - gesture, facial expression, eye contact, posture

  • Sign language - body movements that substitute letters, characters, or sentences

  • Object language (objectics) - things you use or wear

  • Tactile language (haptics) - touch, kiss, slap

  • Space/distance (proxemics) - distance zone for intimate, personal, social, or public

  • Time (chrometics) - concept of punctuality or willingness

  • Silence - what is not said

• Indecision about the message content

• Lack of familiarity with the situation or the receiver

• Emotional conflicts

• Difficulty in expressing ideas

• Environment

• Poor printing quality

• Uncertain misinterpretation

• Many links that distort the message

• Physical distraction like hearing problem or poor eyesight

• Lack of concentration

• Cultural background

• Different interpretation of words

• Different emotional reaction

LESSON 2: THE VALUE OF COMMUNICATION

• It serves as a vehicle in building relationships

• It improves working environment

• It fosters strong team

• It creates appropriate solutions

• It builds greater respect

• Communication is transactional.

• Communication has content.

• Communication can be intentional and unintentional.

• Communication is irreversible.

• Communication is unrepeatable.

• Truthfulness

• Integrity

• Fairness

• Respect

• Responsibility

• Fact-based messages should be communicated with honesty and accuracy

• Resources and facts should be accessible.

• Messages should be made accessible.

• Basic human needs should be given careful consideration.

LESSON 3: GLOBAL COMMUNICATION

• A message sent from one person to another anywhere in the world.

• Examples: E-mail, Webpage, Variety of applications

• Inaccesible Language - Language used in the product may not be understood by the consumer

• Misleading Imagery - Images are sometimes left understood that may mislead the use of the product

• Cultural Misunderstanding - Anxiety, uncertainty, stereotyping, and ethnocentrism resulted from inadequate cultural knowledge and the lack of intercultural communicative skills.

  • Adequate training in cross-cultural communication and exposure to other cultures will help in eliminating these barriers.

• Behaviour and personality differences: body language, thinking, communication, manners, norms, beliefs, etc. - which leads to communication.

  • Example: ic some cultures, eye contact is important whereas in some it is rude and disrespectful

• Symbols - words, pictures, clothes, objects

• Heroes - personas respected and admired

• Rituals - greetings, religious practices, social ceremonies

• Values - culture between right and wrong, good and bad, likes and dislikes, natural and unnatural

• Accommodation – denotes acquired modification in the behavior which helps individuals to adjust to their new environment (J.M. Baldwin).

• Acculturation – a process through which a person or group from one culture come to adopt the practices and values of another culture while retaining their own distinct culture (N.L. Cole).

• Assimilation – the process whereby individuals are able to adopt the cultural norms of the host culture over their original culture (Wikipedia).

• Integration – when individuals are able to adopt the cultural norms of the dominant or host culture while maintaining their culture of origin (Wikipedia).

• Separation – when individuals reject the dominant culture or host culture in favor of preserving their culture of origin (Wikipedia).

• Marginalization – when individuals reject both their culture of origin and the dominant host culture where cultural exclusion is promoted (Wikipedia).

• measures the extent to which individuals within a society, culture, or organization accept and expect unequal distributions of power and authority.

• It reflects the population's attitude toward hierarchy and the degree to which they tolerate power imbalances.

• Societies or organizations where power is shared equally and unequal power distribution is not accepted

Characteristics:

• Collaborative decision-making.

• Decentralized leadership.

Advantages:

• Innovation: Open communication, less authority = more room for creativity.

• Engagement: Opinions matter, people feel valued.

• Inclusivity: Everyone involved in decision-making.

• Growth: Open sharing = collective learning.

Disadvantages:

• Slow decisions: Involving everyone = slower process.

• Misunderstandings: Ideas may contradict each other.

• Majority rule: Majority may suppress minority ideas.

• Leadership gaps: Lack of authority = potential inefficiency.

• Societies or organizations where power is concentrated in the hands of a few, with clear hierarchy.

Characteristics:

• Centralized decision-making.

• Unequal power distribution is accepted.

Advantages:

• Respect for authority: Greater loyalty and respect for leaders.

• Faster decisions: Leadership has the final say.

• Clear boundaries: Defined roles = no overlap.

• Minimize disagreement: Less room for conflicting views.

Disadvantages:

• Low self-esteem: Lower-ranked individuals may feel undervalued.

• Overdependence: People rely too much on leaders.

• Inequality: Leaders may abuse power.

• Reduced interaction: Hesitation to provide feedback to authority.

• A way of living that focuses on self-development, independence, and personal improvement.

Characteristics:

• Prioritizes self-reliance and personal goals.

• Loose social ties, direct communication.

• Promotes freedom and self-confidence.

Advantages:

• More freedom: Greater independence.

• Confidence: Fosters self-sustainability.

Disadvantages:

• Connection issues: Difficult to build strong relationships.

• May lead to self-centeredness.

• A cultural way of life that emphasizes group cooperation and interdependence.

Characteristics:

• Focuses on group harmony and well-being.

• Strong social ties, indirect communication.

• Shared responsibility and community support.

Advantages:

• Community support: Stronger sense of belonging.

• Shared responsibility: Cooperation and mutual help.

Disadvantages:

• Limits personal growth: Individual desires are suppressed.

• From Latin "masculinus," meaning "worthy of a male." Refers to societal expectations for traits and behaviors considered appropriate for boys and men.

Characteristics:

• Emphasizes ambition, acquisition of wealth, and distinct gender roles.

• Prioritizes competition, achievement, and success.

• Values assertiveness and material rewards.

Key Traits:

• Strong work ethic.

• Decisive leadership.

• Competitive spirit.

High Masculinity:

• From Latin "femininus," meaning "relating to women." Refers to societal expectations for traits and behaviors considered appropriate for girls and women.

Characteristics:

• Focuses on caring, nurturing behaviors, and sexual equality.

• Emphasizes environmental awareness and fluid gender roles.

• Prioritizes cooperation, quality of life, and well-being over personal achievement.

Key Traits:

• Supporting each other.

• Focus on open communication.

• Decreased conflicts and open to change.

High Femininity:

• The UAI measures a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and risk, ranging from high to low.

• High UAI = Less open to risks, preference for stability, structured environments, and clear rules.

• Low UAI = More open to risks, embracing risks, flexibility, and innovation.

• Technology

• Religion and Cultural Heritage

• Economic Factors & Political Systems

• Social Values & Education

• Globalization and exposure to diverse cultures

Advantages:

• Embracing change fosters innovation and entrepreneurship.

• Technological advancements and creativity thrive.

• Individuals feel empowered, experience reduced anxiety in uncertain situations.

• Opportunities for discovering new trends and ideas while conserving resources.

Disadvantages:

• Instability and unpredictability can disrupt societal order.

• Lack of clear guidelines may lead to inefficiencies and conflicts.

• Increased personal responsibility for navigating uncertainty.

Advantages:

• Stability and predictability due to well-defined rules and regulations.

• Enhanced social order and security, attracting investment.

• Preparation for future uncertainties minimizes conflicts.

• Structured environments reduce ambiguity and provide clarity.

Disadvantages:

• Resistance to change and innovation, stifling creativity.

• Bureaucratic inefficiencies and slower decision-making processes.

• Higher anxiety in unfamiliar situations, promoting risk aversion.

• Potential stress for individuals, especially children and the elderly.

• Long-Term Orientation (LTO): Cultural values focusing on future success, emphasizing traditions, patience, planning, and perseverance.

• Short-Term Orientation (STO): Cultural values prioritizing immediate outcomes and achievements, focusing on current results and traditional practices over long-term goals.

Key Characteristics:

• Values: Tradition, Patience, Planning, Perseverance

• Related to Confucian Dynamism: Thrift, Delayed Gratification

Advantages:

• Perseverance in achieving goals

• Stronger Relationships built over time

• Economic Development through long-term investments

Disadvantages:

• Over-Focus on Future, potentially sacrificing present happiness

• Impact of Cultural Norms on success

• Fear of Failure affecting decision-making

Key Characteristics:

• Emphasis on Immediate Outcomes

• Focus on Current Results and Traditional Practices

Advantages:

• Optimized Problem-Solving for immediate challenges

• Encourages Goal-Oriented Behavior

• Fosters Drive and Contentment in the present

Disadvantages:

• Neglect of Future Planning can lead to long-term issues

• Diminished Sense of Accomplishment over time

• Sense of Stagnation if goals are not regularly reassessed

• Indulgence: A cultural phenomenon that allows the satisfaction of natural human desires, emphasizing joy and leisure. Societies that embrace indulgence believe that life’s best moments come from fun and enjoying life’s pleasures.

• Restraint: A cultural dimension that emphasizes control and limits on individual expression and behavior, prioritizing social norms over personal desires. In restrained cultures, freedom and self-expression may be less valued.

Key Characteristics:

• Satisfaction of desires

• Joy through leisure activities

• Freedom and Self-Expression emphasized

Advantages:

• Acceptance of Foreign Concepts: Openness to new ideas and experiences

• Emphasis on Freedom and Self-Expression: Encourages individuality and creativity

Disadvantages:

• Weakened Long-Term Planning: Focus on immediate gratification may hinder future considerations

• Overindulgence: Risk of excess leading to negative consequences

Key Characteristics:

• Control over individual desires

• Social Norms prioritized over personal expression

• Long-Term Focus emphasized

Advantages:

• Social Order and Stability: Maintains a structured society

• Cultural Values: Reinforces traditions and collective norms

Disadvantages:

• Suppression of Individual Desires: Limits personal freedom and expression

• Sense of Helplessness: Individuals may feel constrained by societal expectations

• Resistance to Change: Difficulty adapting to new ideas or practices

• Ethnocentrism – one believes that his/her culture is superior to the other.

• Cultural relativism – believes that cultures are equal with one another despite their differences.

• Melting pot philosophy – idea that different cultures will blend together and create one ultimate culture.

• Pluralism – refers to the acknowledgment of cultural relativism and promotion of respect for the uniqueness of the diversity of cultures. Cultures are allowed to co-exist.

• Pay attention to words and action

• Control assumptions

• Empathize across cultures

• Gain knowledge

• Gain experience

LESSON 4: VARIETIES OF ENGLISH/WORLD ENGLISH

• Identifiers of each english

  • Accent

    • Dialect

  • Vocabulary

  • Meaning/Context

  • Pronunciation

  • Grammar

  • Spelling

  • Syntax

• Your accent is the way you say words when you speak. It’s all about pronunciation and has nothing to do with grammar or syntax.

• With accents, two people may say precisely the same words, but make them sound completely different.

• Accent is all about pronunciation. Two people may use the same grammar, the same syntax and the same vocabulary but pronounce the words in a different way. Effectively they have two accents.

• For example:

• people in the north of England tend to say the word path as:

  • pæːθ with a short vowel

• whilst people in the south of England tend to say:

  • pɑːθ with a long vowel.

• There are two different accents at work here.

• Dialects, on the other hand, have differences not only in pronunciation but also in grammar and syntax. Two people may both speak English but one might say:

  • A1: He did well!

  • A2: He done well!

  • B1: He’s talking.

  • B2: He’s a-mardlin’.

• Here there are differences in vocabulary which separate standard British English from the Norfolk dialect.

• The following examples are in this format:

  • American english

  • British english

• Meanings

  • Quite = intensifier

  • Quite = detensifier

• Floors

  • First floor

  • Ground floor

• More floors

  • Second floor

  • First floor

• Semantic fields

  • 
    

• Received pronunciation is a form of pronunciation used in British English; is simply a particular accent of English.

• Differs usually from region to region; people from one area will speak with a particular accent whilst people from another area speak with a different accent

• There are special cases where different regions have similar accents - non-regional

• It can be social, received pronunciation can be spoken by what used to be called “the upper classes” in Britain and it’s spoken by people who have attended expensive fee-paying schools, can suggest a privileged social and educational background.

• The following examples are in this format:

  • British english

  • American english

• Present Perfect vs Past Simple

  • present perfect

  • past simple

• Irregular verbs

  • Dive - dived - dived; dive - dove - dived

  • Get - got - got; get - got - gotten

• Prepositions

  • Shall

  • Should

• Question tags

  • Shall I?

  • Right?

• Collective nouns

  • Team are (either singular or plural)

  • Team is (plural only)

• Adverbs

  • Really (-ly)

  • Real

• Double imperatives

  • Go and open

  • Go open (drops the ‘and’)

Format: British/American

General rules

• -our/ -or

• -re/ -er

• -ce/ -se

• -ise/ -ice

• -ogue/ -og

• -t/ -ed

• Greek origin = ae-

• The different kinds of English used around the world. Often these are geographically based.

• The varieties are more or less similar and while most English speakers can understand each other, there are occasional problems

Background

• English was used as the lingua franca‏‎ in many other places (often countries which formed part of the British Empire).

• Language used in these different countries began to develop independently from the original language

• There are many other varieties and virtually all countries where English is spoken has their own variety; each main variety of English has sub-varieties or regional variations

• AmE – is a variant of the English language, spoken mainly in the United States‎. About two-thirds of the world’s native speakers of English live in America and speak this variant.

• English‏‎ was introduced to North America by British settlers during the colonization period (17th century)

• AuE – is a variant of the English language, spoken mainly in Australia.

• Australian English began to diverge from British English shortly after Australia was settled in the late 18th century

• A very broad term used to refer to British English and American English‏‎ as spoken by the black communities in the US and the UK

Types

• African American Vernacular English - a distinct dialect of English, sometimes classed as a variety of English. It is also known as Ebonics though this is not a term used by linguists and is sometimes used pejoratively.

  • roots in the slave trade

  • forced to create a pidgin‏‎ or creole

  • language structure which has much in common with a number of African languages

• British Black English - similar origins but is based on a Jamaican creole spoken by Caribbean communities, mainly in London but also in large cities such as Manchester, Bristol, Birmingham, Leeds and Nottingham.

  • British Black English speakers are finding their own voice in literature such as rap poetry and song

• British English - is a variant of the English language, spoken mainly in the United Kingdom

• No single British English variation of English. Instead there are a considerable number of variations mainly found in different locations

  • Scottish English

  • Irish English

  • Welsh English

  • Northumbrian

  • Norfolk

  • Cornish

  • The Queen’s English

  • BBC English

  • RP or Received Pronunciation

LESSON 5: LANGUAGE REGISTERS

• Language register is the level of formality or informality with which people converse with one another

• Literally frozen

• Often learned and repeated

• Ritualic and may be archaic

• Used in respectful or formal ceremonies

• Examples: national anthems, alma mater song, marriage ceremonies, prayers

• Language is standard

• Avoids slang

• Technical and academic vocabulary

• Fewer contractions or no contractions

• Examples: speeches, announcements, pronouncements of judges

• Normal style for speaking to strangers or persons who are neither acquaintance or friends or relatives

• Two-way process of communication; uses titles: Dr., Atty., etc.

• Words are general rather than technical

• Conversational in tone

• Examples: a superior and a subordinate, a doctor and a patient, a lawyer and a client, a teacher and a student

• Used among friends and acquaintances that does not require background information

• No said barriers

• Very relaxed in conversation, conversational tone

• Uses informal language - slangs, vulgarities, colloquialisms are informal

• Gets to know the someone on more personal travel

• Examples: chat with buddies, emails or letters to friends, blogs, phrases like “I’m doin’ it my way”, lemme go”, wassup?”

• A non-public speech style

• Used by family members or a very close friend/s

• Meaning is more important than correct linguistic codes

• Uses private vocabulary, endearment, name callings

• Avoid in public and professional situations

• Free and easy participation of both speaker and listener

• By knowing what various registers are and how to differentiate between them and when to use them, will help increase your chance of being accepted by groups, and speakers in a variety of contexts without the feeling of anxiety or uneasiness.

LESSON 6: BIAS-FREE LANGUAGE