Notes on Wittgenstein and Cooper

Introduction to Skepticism

Certainty is often viewed as integral to possessing knowledge.
Descartes' View: Certainty equates to the absence of doubt.
Doubt: Defined as the absence of certainty, leading to an unresolved circular definition.

Alexander Bain's Perspective:
- Doubt is an irritant.
- It represents emotional discomfort when beliefs conflict with reality.
- Bain encourages proceeding despite doubt, advocating for further inquiry rather than viewing doubt as a stopping point.

Background:
- Ludwig Wittgenstein, a prominent philosopher of the 20th century, known for his eccentricity.
- Born into a wealthy family in late 19th-century Vienna.
- Studied engineering before shifting focus to philosophy under Bertrand Russell.
- His experiences in World War I and his sexuality contributed to his philosophical outlook.
Writing Style:
- Characterized by elegant bullet points, reflecting his distinct philosophical method.

Cartesian Dualism:
- Descartes bifurcates reality into mental and physical realms, which raises questions about their interaction.
- Wittgenstein argues against this strict division, positing that language is integral to our understanding of the world.

Ordinary Language Philosophy:
- Wittgenstein advocates that language is embedded within our daily activities and purposeful contexts.
- Language evolved to facilitate collaboration and communication within societal structures.
- Analyzing language outside of ordinary usage is deemed misguided.

Definition:
- Language games are subsets of communication used in various contexts (e.g., shopping, building).
- Different activities incorporate distinct language games.
Complexity:
- Language can range from simple communication to elaborate forms like comedy, which integrates rhythm, content, and various linguistic nuances.

Two Types of Certainty:
- Subjective Certainty:
  - Emotional conviction about beliefs.
  - Individuals may passionately advocate for their views.
- Objective Certainty:
  - Situations where doubt is inconceivable (e.g., (2 + 2 = 4)).

Evidence is contextually determined within language games, leading to varying degrees of certainty.
Even those engaging in radical doubt (like Descartes) act upon certain foundational beliefs in daily life (the sun rising, mathematical truths).
Foundational Assumptions:
- Certain truths, such as existence and reality, are not subject to doubt and are necessary for functioning.
- Doubting foundational assumptions disrupts coherent communication (e.g., moving pieces off the chessboard).

Background:
- Anna Julia Cooper overcame social and racial obstacles, becoming the fourth Black woman to earn a PhD.
- Contextualizes skepticism within sociopolitical frameworks.
- Advocates for a balance between skepticism and belief, especially pertinent to marginalized groups.

Cooper emphasizes that while skepticism can be useful for inquiry, belief is necessary for action.
Critiques excessive skepticism as isolating, linking it with a lack of connection to communal realities and relationships.
Common Causes and Beliefs:
- Essential for social connections and collective action.

Concerns of Dogmatism:
- Descartes and like thinkers identify dogmatism as the antithesis of skepticism, fearing entrenched beliefs.
- Radical conviction may undermine inquiry and adaptability.

The ideal position is neither radical skepticism nor dogmatism but a harmonious middle ground.
Emphasizes the importance of justified beliefs while recognizing the distinctions between belief validity and absolute truth.
Awaiting further exploration of justification in subsequent discussions.