Operant Conditioning (3.8)

Moving from classical conditioning, we explore operant conditioning, which focuses on consequences

Note: Established by B.F. Skinner

Definition: Associating consequences (reinforcement and punishment) with behaviors

EX: A dog sits on command and in return receives a treat

Law of Effect: Behaviors with reinforcing consequences are more likely to be repeated; those with punishing consequences are less likely
EX: A child cleans their room and receives praise, increasing the likelihood of cleaning again

Understanding operant conditioning helps in shaping behaviors through reinforcement and punishment

Reinforcement and Punishment

Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior

EX: Giving a treat for a good behavior

Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior

EX: Turning off a loud alarm when a task is completed

Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior
EX: Receiving a speeding ticket for going over the speed limit

Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior
EX: Taking away video game privileges

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing, satisfy biological needs

EX: Food, water

Secondary Reinforcers: Learned reinforcers, associated with primary reinforcers

EX: Money, praise

Discrimination: Responding to specific stimuli that signal reinforcement

EX: A rat pressing a lever only when a green light is on

Generalization: Responding similarly to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus

EX: A rat pressing a lever in response to both green and blue lights

Reinforcement Schedules

The timing of reinforcement delivery affects the strength of behavior conditioning

Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement is delivered for each correct behavior

EX: Giving a treat every time a dog sits on command

Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcement is delivered on a variable schedule

Types

Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set time period

EX: Paychecks bi-weekly
Variable Interval: Reinforcement after varying time intervals

EX: Checking for a response to an email

Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses
EX: Commission after every tenth sale

Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a varying number of responses

EX: Slot machine payouts

Different schedules influence the persistence and strength of conditioned behaviors

Shaping and Instinctive Drift

Behaviors can be gradually shaped through reinforcement

Shaping: Gradually reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behaviors

EX: Rewarding a pigeon as it pecks closer and closer to a button or lever

Instinctive Drift: Tendency for animals to revert back to instinctual behaviors despite reinforcement

EX: A raccoon washing food even when trained to put coins in a bank

Shaping and instinctive drift demonstrate the power and limitations of operant conditioning

Unexpected Applications

Sometimes, behaviors are reinforced or suppressed in unexpected ways

Superstitious Behavior: Occurs when consequences reinforce unrelated behaviors

EX: Fear of crossing the path of a black cat because something bad happened last time

Learned Helplessness: Occurs when organisms learn they have no control over aversive outcomes

EX: Dogs not attempting to escape shock after being restrained initially