Motivation TOTAL
Motivation
Date: Monday, January 12th, 2026
Course Code: KPER 2540
Instructor: Dr. Shaelyn Strachan
Guest Assistants: GA, Manic D. Dillize, A. Gaastra
Outline
Review from last class
Finish slides from last class
Motivation
Definition and conceptualization
Approaches to Motivation
Behavioral
Cognitive
Social cognitive
Theories
Definition and usefulness
Theory of Planned Behaviour
Review From Last Class
Question: Which of the following describe the designation of "sport psychologist"?
a) Only those trained and licensed can use the term
b) Sport psychologists engage exclusively in consulting
c) Sport psychologists must meet standards of conduct when providing services
d) Both a and c are correct.
Correct Answer: d (Both a and c are correct)
Review from Last Class - Research References
Journal Reference: Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 31 (2017) 158-165.
Article Title: An online intervention to increase physical activity: Self-regulatory possible selves and the moderating role of task self-efficacy
Authors: Shaelyn M. Strachan, Meghan M.E. Marcotte, Tara M.T. Gillera, Jennifer Brunet, Benjamin J.I. Schellenberg
Institutional Affiliations:
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Review from Last Class - Hypothesis
Hypothesis Statement: People assigned to a possible selves intervention will report greater increase in physical activity than people assigned to the control condition.
Question: In the above example, what is the dependent variable?
Research Approaches
Quantitative Inquiry
Primary Aims: Test hypotheses, measure variables
Assumptions: Reality is objective and observable
Typical Research Questions:
How many; how much; does X predict Y;
Types of Data: Scores, counts, ratings derived from scales, assessments
Common Methods: Experiments, surveys, large scale observation
Role of Researcher: Seeks objectivity and non-influence on data
Strengths:
Replicability
Generalizability
Hypothesis testing
Weaknesses:
Reductionistic: lacks context
Time-intensive; less generalizability
Qualitative Inquiry
Primary Aims: Explore meanings and experiences
Assumptions: Reality is subjective and contextual
Typical Research Questions: What is it like; how is this experienced; why does this happen?
Types of Data: Interview transcripts, observations, documents
Common Methods: Interviews, transcripts, observations, documents
Role of Researcher: Acknowledged instrument in data generation
Strengths: Depth, contextual understanding
Weaknesses: Time-intensive; less generalizability
Indigenous Ways of Knowing
Observation: Sport and Exercise Psychology has been dominated by Eurocentric world views and methodologies.
Current Trends: Growing acknowledgment of Indigenous ways of knowing
Characteristics of Indigenous ways of knowing:
Centering of Indigenous world views and methods (e.g., storytelling, two-eyed seeing)
Drawing knowledge from Indigenous knowledge systems as well as Western ways of knowing
Recognizing historical harms of racism and colonization
Text Topics Not Covered
Additional Topics for Responsibility:
Positive Psychology in Sport and Exercise (pgs. 4-6)
Standards of Conduct and Practitioner Competencies in Sport and Exercise Psychology (pgs. 10-11)
History of Sport and Exercise Psychology (pgs. 11-14)
Evidence-based Practice (pgs. 20-21)
Motivation Defined
Definition of Motivation: Internal processes such as needs, thoughts, and emotions that provide energy and direction to behavior.
Influences on Motivation:
Motivation is changeable (you are not doomed if you lack motivation)
Behavioral Approaches to Motivation and Behavior Change
Operant Conditioning: Learning that occurs through behavior being reinforced or punished.
Reinforcement: When a desirable behavior is increased in frequency.
Positive Reinforcement: Any factor that, through its occurrence, increases the likelihood of a behavior (reward).
Negative Reinforcement: Any factor that, through its removal, increases the likelihood of a behavior (removes something aversive).
Key Point: Both should lead to an increase in a behavior.
Punishment: When an undesirable behavior is decreased in frequency.
Positive Punishment: When the addition of an aversive stimulus decreases the likelihood of a behavior (also known as aversive punishment).
Negative Punishment: When the removal of a desired stimulus decreases the likelihood of a behavior (also known as response cost).
Key Point: Both should lead to a decrease in behavior.
Vicarious Conditioning: Learning that occurs through observation rather than direct experience.
Vicarious Reinforcement: Learning by observing someone receive a reward.
Vicarious Punishment: Learning by observing someone receive punishment.
Cognitive Approaches to Motivation and Behavior Change
Cognitive Approaches: Emphasize the role of cognitions and beliefs (thoughts) in motivation.
Influence of Environment: Cognitions about their environment influence why people do things.
Alteration of Cognition: Cognitions can be altered to effect behavior change.
Cognitive Behavioral Approaches
Definition: Our cognitions influence our emotions and behavior, and our behavior can influence our thoughts and emotions.
Key Relationship: A reciprocal relationship exists between cognitions, emotions, and behavior.
Theories of Motivation
Definition: Theories are formed based on empirical evidence and are continually being refined.
Purpose of Theories:
Provide a foundation for scientists.
Specify relationships across scientific constructs.
Attempt to explain phenomena across time, contexts, and diverse populations.
Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
Overview: Widely used theory that highlights the personal and social influences on behaviors.
History: First used to study health-related behaviors.
Components of the Theory of Planned Behavior
Behavioral Beliefs: Affect attitudes toward the behavior.
Normative Beliefs: Create subjective norms influencing intention.
Control Beliefs: Relate to perceived behavioral control influencing behavior.
Source: Ajzen (1985).
Intervening with Attitudes
Application: What could a coach or personal trainer do to increase an athlete's/exerciser’s positive attitude about sport/exercise?
Intervening with Subjective Norms
Application: What could a coach or personal trainer do to enhance an athlete's/exerciser’s subjective norms regarding sport?
Intervening with Perceived Control
Application: What could a coach or personal trainer do to improve an athlete's/exerciser’s perceived behavioral control regarding sport?
Research Findings on Theory of Planned Behavior
Note: Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) influences behavior directly and indirectly.
Findings:
Support for all proposed relationships.
Attitudes and Perceived Behavioral Control show stronger relationships with intentions compared to subjective norms.
Intentions predict physical activity behavior approximately 50% of the time.
Additional Material Not Covered in Class
Text Reference: The Intention-Behaviour Gap (pages 53-54).
Next Class
Planned Agenda: Finish up slides from this class.
Upcoming Topics: Social Cognitive Theory, Self-Determination Theory.
Course Details
Course Title: Motivation II
Course Code: KPER 2540
Date: Wednesday, Jan. 14, 2026
Instructor: Dr. Shaelyn Strachan
Recap of Last Class
Jeremy's Motivation:
Jeremy is motivated to play hockey for multiple reasons:
Observes his older brother playing hockey.
Desires to be part of a team which he associates with fun.
According to the behavioural approach to understanding motivation, various operant functions can be identified. Evaluating Jeremy's scenario, consider the following operant function options:
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment
Positive Reinforcement
Vicarious Conditioning
Bonus Questions:
What type of vicarious conditioning applies to Jeremy's feelings about hockey?
Vicarious Positive Punishment
Vicarious Negative Punishment
Vicarious Reinforcement
Vicarious Negative Reinforcement
Julie’s Motivation:
Julie exercises to avoid feelings of guilt and the obligation she associates with not exercising.
Similar to Jeremy's case, analyze Julie's behavior through the lens of the behavioral approach to motivation and the potential operant functions involved:
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment
Positive Reinforcement
Vicarious Conditioning
Theory of Planned Behavior
Components:
Behavioral Beliefs
Normative Beliefs
Control Beliefs
Influence Flow:
Attitudes
Intention
Behavior
Subjective Norm
Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)
Source: Ajzen (1985).
Key Note:
PBC influences behavior directly and indirectly.
Important to note that PBC plays a critical role in predicting behavior.
Intervening with Perceived Control
Strategies for Coaches/Trainers:
Consider effective methods to enhance an athlete's or exerciser’s perceived behavioral control in sports.
Research in Theory of Planned Behavior
Findings:
PBC directly and indirectly influences behavior.
Stronger relationships between certain variables compared to others regarding intentions.
Notably, intentions predict physical activity behavior approximately 50% of the time, indicating some gaps in predictability.
Materials from Text
Topics Not Covered in Class:
The Intention-Behavior Gap (Pages 53-54).
Upcoming Topics
Finish discussing current slides from class.
Introduction to:
Social Cognitive Theory
Self-Determination Theory
Social Cognitive Theory Overview
Proponent: Albert Bandura
General Concept:
Motivation is a product of the interplay between person, behavior, and environment, encapsulated by the concept of Reciprocal Determinism.
Breakdown of components:
Behavior
Person
Environment
Key Constructs of Social Cognitive Theory
Observational Learning (Modeling):
Learning through observing others and the outcomes of their behaviors.
Goals:
Setting personal objectives to guide behavior.
Outcome Expectations
Definition:
This refers to beliefs regarding the outcomes of a behavior (positive or negative), which serve to provide motivation and act as reinforcers.
Examples:
Positive outcome: "If I exercise more, I will improve my cardio fitness."
Negative outcome: "If I exercise more, I will have less time for other activities."
Outcome Expectancies:
This defines how likely an individual believes that the expected outcome can be achieved.
Examples:
Positive expectancy: "I value improved cardio because of family history of cardiovascular disease."
Negative expectancy: "I have limited free time, therefore I value the time lost while exercising."
Self-Regulation
Concept:
The process where individuals initiate, direct, monitor, and evaluate their behavior towards achieving a goal.
Example:
Demonstrating behavioral capacity by utilizing knowledge and skills effectively in pursuit of a goal.
Self-Efficacy
Definition:
The belief in one’s own capabilities to organize and execute the actions required to achieve a desired outcome or goal.
Known as a core construct within Social Cognitive Theory and pivotal for motivation, well-being, and personal achievement.
Recap of Constructs in Social Cognitive Theory
Constructs to remember:
Observational Learning
Goals
Outcome Expectations
Outcome Expectancies
Self-Regulation
Behavioral Capacity
Self-Efficacy
Sources of Self-Efficacy
Key Factors:
Past Performance
Vicarious Experiences
Social Persuasion
Physiological/Affective States
Visualization:
Behavior <-> SELF-EFFICACY <-> Cognitions <-> Affect
Support for Social Cognitive Theory
Research Findings:
Limited comprehensive studies combining all aspects of this theory; however, individual constructs receive varying degrees of support.
Examples of Support:
Self-efficacy's profound influence on:
Sport Performance (Beauchamp et al., 2002)
Exercise Adherence (Rodgers & Brawley, 1993)
Physical Activity in Children (Review Study; Bauman et al., 2012)
Next Class Preview
Upcoming Focus:
Self-Determination Theory
Exploration of Non-Conscious Processes
Motivation III Notes
Date & Venue
Date: Friday, January 16th, 2025
Location: KPER 2540
Instructor: Dr. Shaelyn Strachan
Review from Last Class
Discussion around Rob, who is considered to maintain a healthy weight and does not feel the need to lose weight; thus, sees no value in exercising.
Theory of Planned Behaviour Variables Discussed:
Attitudes: Personal beliefs about behavior.
Subjective Norms: Perceived social pressures.
Perceived Behavioural Control: Beliefs about how easy/difficult a behavior is to perform.
Intentions: Plans to perform a behavior.
Question Examined: Which variable best explains why Rob doesn’t exercise?
Case Study on Lee
Profile of Lee: Unfit individual who hires a personal trainer for intensive workouts.
After a few tough sessions, Lee experiences soreness and anticipates the next workout negatively, impacting his confidence.
Self-Efficacy Theory Discussion:
Sources of self-efficacy that may affect confidence include:
Past Experience/Mastery Experience: Previous successes leading to confidence.
Vicarious Experience: Observing others and believing in personal capabilities based on that.
Social Persuasion: Feedback from others that encourages and motivates.
Physiological/Affective States: Emotional and physical feelings affecting performance and self-belief.
Question Examined: What source best explains Lee’s declining self-efficacy?
Concept of Self-Efficacy
Definition: Belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute actions required to manage prospective situations.
Review of Theories Discussed
Theory of Planned Behaviour
Social Cognitive Theory
Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
Overview: A comprehensive theory regarding human motivation and development.
Focuses on the autonomy of behaviors versus external control.
Key Focus: How behaviors are adopted of one’s own volition versus being controlled by external agents (e.g., rewards, punishments).
Sub-Structures: The theory is comprised of five sub-theories; emphasis will be placed on two.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in a behavior for its own sake, experiencing self-reward.
Key Constructs Influencing Intrinsic Motivation:
Competence: The feeling of being effective in one’s actions.
Autonomy: The feeling that activities are self-chosen and align with personal values.
Social Contexts Impact: Influence on intrinsic motivation can lead to negative consequences.
Detrimental Factors:
Social Pressure
Negative Reinforcement
Threat or Punishment
Competition
Rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation unless experienced in a non-controlling manner (e.g., informational rewards, unexpected rewards).
Research Example (Medic et al., 2007)
Study Context: Examined the motivation of collegiate basketball players in relation to scholarship pressures.
Findings: The dependency on scholarships correlated with a decrease in reported intrinsic motivation for basketball.
Relevance to Self-Determination Theory: External pressure may diminish intrinsic motivation as per cognitive evaluation theory.
Citation: Medic, N., Mack, D.E., Wilson, P.M. & Starkes, J.L. (2007). The effects of athletic scholarships on motivation in sport. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 30(3), 292-306.
Beneficial Factors for Intrinsic Motivation
References include:
Deci, E., & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.
Ryan, R.M. (2017). Cognitive Evaluation Theory, Part I. In R.M. Ryan (ed.), The Handbook of Self-Determination Theory.
Organismic Integration Theory
Overview: Addresses the various forms of extrinsic motivation; differentiating between engaging in an activity for reasons beyond the enjoyment itself.
Extrinsic Motivation Spectrum: Ranges from a lack of motivation (Amotivation) to forms that are more integrated with personal values.
Terminology:
Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging for inherent enjoyment
Integrated Regulation: Aligning behavior with self-identity.
Identified Regulation: Activities pursued due to personal importance.
Introjected Regulation: Engaging to avoid feelings of guilt or obligation.
External Regulation: Actions driven by desire for external rewards or avoidance of punishment.
Amotivation: Absence of intention or motivation.
Motivational Continuum
Scale from Low to High Self-Determination:
Transitioning from Amotivation through various extrinsic forms to intrinsic motivation.
Importance of Motivation Quality
Research Findings: In sports and exercise, higher quality motivation (intrinsic, integrated, identified) is linked to positive outcomes in persistence, performance, and well-being.
Strategies to Enhance Motivation Along the Self-Determination Continuum
Meeting the Three Psychological Needs:
Autonomy: Creating opportunities for choices that align with personal preferences.
Competence: Ensuring activities are appropriately challenging and foster growth.
Relatedness: Fostering connections and care in social contexts related to activities.
Individual Actions:
Choose challenging goals, engage in environments fostering social connections, and practice supportive self-talk.
Involve family and friends in exercise/sport activities.
Recap of Self-Determination Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Focus on intrinsic motivation influenced by social environments.
Organismic Integration Theory: Defines a range of motivations from amotivation to intrinsic and various forms of extrinsic motivations.
Unfocused Theories: Basic Psychological Needs Theory, outlining autonomy, competence, and relatedness as essential for self-determination in actions.
Motivation III Notes
Date & Venue
Date: Friday, January 16th, 2025
Location: KPER 2540
Instructor: Dr. Shaelyn Strachan
Review from Last Class
Discussion around Rob, who is considered to maintain a healthy weight and does not feel the need to lose weight; thus, sees no value in exercising.
Theory of Planned Behaviour Variables Discussed:
Attitudes: Personal beliefs about behavior.
Subjective Norms: Perceived social pressures.
Perceived Behavioural Control: Beliefs about how easy/difficult a behavior is to perform.
Intentions: Plans to perform a behavior.
Question Examined: Which variable best explains why Rob doesn’t exercise?
Case Study on Lee
Profile of Lee: Unfit individual who hires a personal trainer for intensive workouts.
After a few tough sessions, Lee experiences soreness and anticipates the next workout negatively, impacting his confidence.
Self-Efficacy Theory Discussion:
Sources of self-efficacy that may affect confidence include:
Past Experience/Mastery Experience: Previous successes leading to confidence.
Vicarious Experience: Observing others and believing in personal capabilities based on that.
Social Persuasion: Feedback from others that encourages and motivates.
Physiological/Affective States: Emotional and physical feelings affecting performance and self-belief.
Question Examined: What source best explains Lee’s declining self-efficacy?
Concept of Self-Efficacy
Definition: Belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute actions required to manage prospective situations.
Review of Theories Discussed
Theory of Planned Behaviour
Social Cognitive Theory
Self-Efficacy Theory
Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985)
Overview: A comprehensive theory regarding human motivation and development.
Focuses on the autonomy of behaviors versus external control.
Key Focus: How behaviors are adopted of one’s own volition versus being controlled by external agents (e.g., rewards, punishments).
Sub-Structures: The theory is comprised of five sub-theories; emphasis will be placed on two.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in a behavior for its own sake, experiencing self-reward.
Key Constructs Influencing Intrinsic Motivation:
Competence: The feeling of being effective in one’s actions.
Autonomy: The feeling that activities are self-chosen and align with personal values.
Social Contexts Impact: Influence on intrinsic motivation can lead to negative consequences.
Detrimental Factors:
Social Pressure
Negative Reinforcement
Threat or Punishment
Competition
Rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation unless experienced in a non-controlling manner (e.g., informational rewards, unexpected rewards).
Research Example (Medic et al., 2007)
Study Context: Examined the motivation of collegiate basketball players in relation to scholarship pressures.
Findings: The dependency on scholarships correlated with a decrease in reported intrinsic motivation for basketball.
Relevance to Self-Determination Theory: External pressure may diminish intrinsic motivation as per cognitive evaluation theory.
Citation: Medic, N., Mack, D.E., Wilson, P.M. & Starkes, J.L. (2007). The effects of athletic scholarships on motivation in sport. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 30(3), 292-306.
Beneficial Factors for Intrinsic Motivation
References include:
Deci, E., & Ryan, R.M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268.
Ryan, R.M. (2017). Cognitive Evaluation Theory, Part I. In R.M. Ryan (ed.), The Handbook of Self-Determination Theory.
Organismic Integration Theory
Overview: Addresses the various forms of extrinsic motivation; differentiating between engaging in an activity for reasons beyond the enjoyment itself.
Extrinsic Motivation Spectrum: Ranges from a lack of motivation (Amotivation) to forms that are more integrated with personal values.
Terminology:
Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging for inherent enjoyment
Integrated Regulation: Aligning behavior with self-identity.
Identified Regulation: Activities pursued due to personal importance.
Introjected Regulation: Engaging to avoid feelings of guilt or obligation.
External Regulation: Actions driven by desire for external rewards or avoidance of punishment.
Amotivation: Absence of intention or motivation.
Motivational Continuum
Scale from Low to High Self-Determination:
Transitioning from Amotivation through various extrinsic forms to intrinsic motivation.
Importance of Motivation Quality
Research Findings: In sports and exercise, higher quality motivation (intrinsic, integrated, identified) is linked to positive outcomes in persistence, performance, and well-being.
Strategies to Enhance Motivation Along the Self-Determination Continuum
Meeting the Three Psychological Needs:
Autonomy: Creating opportunities for choices that align with personal preferences.
Competence: Ensuring activities are appropriately challenging and foster growth.
Relatedness: Fostering connections and care in social contexts related to activities.
Individual Actions:
Choose challenging goals, engage in environments fostering social connections, and practice supportive self-talk.
Involve family and friends in exercise/sport activities.
Recap of Self-Determination Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Focus on intrinsic motivation influenced by social environments.
Organismic Integration Theory: Defines a range of motivations from amotivation to intrinsic and various forms of extrinsic motivations.
Unfocused Theories: Basic Psychological Needs Theory, outlining autonomy, competence, and relatedness as essential for self-determination in actions.