The Buddhist Sangha

The Buddhist Sangha — Foundations

The Sangha Defined

  • Initial Enlightenment and Propagation of Dharma

    • The Buddha's enlightenment near the Bodhi tree lasted forty-nine days.

    • Persuaded by the deity Brahmā Sahampati to spread the Dharma.

    • First followers: two merchants became lay disciples.

    • Buddha preached his first sermon in Benares to five ascetic friends.

  • First Sermon Outcomes

    • Following the first sermon, all five ascetics attained nirvana.

    • They requested ordination:

    • Preliminary ordination: pravrajyā

    • Full ordination: upasaṃpadā

    • The Buddha’s exhortation, “Come, O Monk!” (ehi bhikṣu), marked the birth of the sangha, which quickly expanded.

  • Historical Use of Sangha Term

    • Originally, sangha referred to a community living together for a specific purpose, and was distinct from other religious groups.

    • Initially defined as the bhikṣu-sangha (“community of monks”).

    • Following the establishment of the order of nuns, they became the bhikṣuṇī-sangha.

    • Collective term for both: ubhayato-sangha (“twofold community”).

    • In Theravāda countries, this original definition predominantly persists, unlike the broader use of sangha seen today.

  • Buddha's Usage of Sangha

    • Occasionally referred to cāturdisa-sangha (“sangha of the four quarters”) while still signifying the monastic community exclusively.

Growth and Institutionalization of the Sangha

  • Formalization of Ordination Procedures

    • Due to rapid growth, ordination procedures became more formalized.

    • Monks were allowed to confer both types of ordinations, initiated by supervised recitation:

    • "I go to the Buddha for refuge."

    • "I go to the Dharma for refuge."

    • "I go to the Sangha for refuge."

  • Wandering and Living Patterns

    • Monks and nuns were instructed to wander and teach Dharma, settling mainly during the rainy season.

    • Settlements included:

    1. Self-constructed hut: āvāsa

    2. Donated hut: ārāma

    • During rain retreats, emphasis on study and meditation; minimal living requirements noted.

  • Post-Buddha Developments

    • After the Buddha’s death, rain retreats institutionalized; large monastic units known as vihāras became common.

    • These structures symbolized a shift from the wandering ideal to settled monastic communities.

    • Expanded communal needs; monasteries became centers for pilgrimage and festivals, accruing respect in economic and political realms.

  • Inclusion of Lay Members

    • Though initially distinct, lay members (upāsikas: male; upāsikās: female) became integral to the sangha.

Vinaya Piṭaka

  • Definition and Importance

    • Emphasizes discipline within both monastic and lay communities:

    • Buddhist scholar Michael Carrithers noted, "No Buddhism without the Sangha and no Sangha without the Discipline."

    • The Vinaya Piṭaka governs monastic life.

  • Vinaya Literature Structure

    • Two categories of literature: Canonical & Non-canonical

    • Canonical Vinaya:

      1. Sūtravibhaṅga: analysis of Prātimokṣa offences

      2. Skandhaka: regulations regarding the sangha’s organization

    • Non-canonical literature includes commentaries and miscellaneous texts.

Prātimokṣa Sutra

  • Content Overview

    • An inventory of offenses categorized by severity. Development considered in three stages:

    1. Simple confession by monks and nuns.

    2. Basic monastic code to ensure discipline.

    3. Structured liturgy demonstrating organizational capacity.

  • Classes of Offenses

    • For monks:

    1. Pārājika dharmas: requiring expulsion

    2. Sanghāvaśeṣa dharmas: temporary exclusion with probation

    3. Aniyata dharmas: undetermined cases, often sexual

    4. Naiḥsargika-Pāyantika dharmas: expiation offenses

    5. Pāyantika dharmas: simple expiation required

    6. Pratideśanīya dharmas: confession required

    7. Śākyaputrīya-śramaṇas: rules of etiquette

    8. Adhikaraṇa-Śamatha dharmas: legal dispute procedures

    • For nuns: Similar structure but missing the third class.

Karmavācanā

  • Definition

    • Functional device regulating communal life within the sangha—uses multiple Karmavācanā rules.

  • Key Procedures

    • Includes admission and full ordination, rain residence, use of leather goods, food and medicine preparation, robe-giving ceremony, discipline protocols, daily monk life, and managing disputes.

Canonical Vinaya Literature

  • Sūtravibhaṅga

    • Analyzes offenses from the Prātimokṣa Sutra, offering a four-part description for rules:

    1. Narrative of circumstances leading to the rule.

    2. The rule itself.

    3. Commentary on the rule.

    4. Examples of exceptions and mitigating circumstances.

    • New terms introduced: sthūlātyaya (grave offense), duṣkṛta (light offense), durbhāṣita (improper speech).

  • Skandhaka

    • Contains regulations for sangha organization based on Karmavācanās.

    • Comprises 20 sections (vastus), covering admissions, confessions, seasonal residences, disputes, etc.

Appendices

  • Supplemental materials summarizing rules and historical events related to Vinaya literature and the sangha.

The Laity and Merit in Buddhism

  • Concept of Merit

    • Defined as puṇya, cultivated through wholesome acts that generate good karma.

    • Laity support the monastic community, establishing it as a special field of merit (puṇya-kṣetra) Expert in Vinaya

    • Rāhula: Young novice, son of Buddha

    • Śāriputra & Maudgalyāyana: Close disciples, recognized for enlightenment and powers.

    • Mahākāśyapa: Led first council after Buddha’s death.

    • Devadatta: Opposed Buddha, founded his sect.

  • Lay Disciples

    • Anāthapiṇḍika: Wealthy patron, built Jetavana monastery.

    • Viśākhā: Banker’s daughter, critical supporter of the sangha.

  • Royal Patrons

    • King Bimbisāra: First royal patron, built early monastery.

    • King Prasenajit: Initially hesitant but later supported the sangha.

Monastic Life Development

  • Evolution from Wanderers to Settled Monastics

    • Initially, monks followed seasonal dwelling customs (varṣā) to cultivate communal living.

    • Settlements:

    1. Self-constructed huts (āvāsa).

    2. Donated parks (ārāma) leading to complex structures (vihāras).

  • Institutional Organization

    • Recitation of Prātimokṣa adopted twice monthly; regulated ordination procedures by the sangha.

    • Vihāras evolved from temporary huts to complex institutions, with some becoming universities like Nālandā.

Geographic Spread of the Sangha

  • Regions in Buddha’s Lifetime

    • Initially confined to regions of Magadha and Kośala; extended influence marked by reputable locations:

    • Rājagṛha (capital of Magadha).

    • Pāṭaliputra (future major capital).

    • Bodhgayā (enlightenment site).

  • Future Expansion Post-Buddha

    • Growth of the sangha beyond early confines during later centuries.

The Bhikṣuṇī Sangha

  • Origins

    • Founded five years after the monastic order for men; initiated through Mahāprajāpatī’s request.

    • Originally denied by Buddha, reversed after intervention, led to acceptance of women’s potential for nirvana with conditions (gurudharma).

  • Cultural Challenges

    • Women faced societal biases complicating their status within Buddhism. Decline post-third century noted significantly.

  • Contemporary Issues

    • Key efforts include re-establishment of bhikṣuṇī lineage, improvement of living conditions, and addressing educational gaps for nuns.

Summary Points

  • Community Structure

    • The Buddhist sangha includes both monastic and lay participants.

  • Disciplinary Codes

    • Monastics adhere to Vinaya Piṭaka; laypersons abide by the Five Precepts.

  • Mutual Support

    • Strong interdependence exists between the monastic and lay communities.

  • Expansion and Evolution

    • The sangha has undergone extensive growth and adaptation since the Buddha's time.