AP GOV TERMS
AP REQUIRED DOCUMENTS
1. Federalist No. 10 – James Madison (1787)
Purpose: Explain how a large republic controls factions and protects minority rights.
What it does / Main Arguments:
Defines faction: a group with a shared interest adverse to public good or minority rights.
Factions are inevitable due to:
Different opinions, passions, and property ownership
Religious differences
Attachment to leaders
Two ways to deal with factions:
Remove causes – impossible without destroying liberty
Control effects – achievable in a republic
Explains pure democracy (direct citizen participation) is vulnerable to majority tyranny.
Republic (representative government) filters public opinion through elected officials.
Large republic advantages:
More citizens → more factions → harder for one to dominate
Representatives refine public views
Union prevents local/regional factions from dominating nationally
Key Terms / Definitions:
Faction: Citizens united by interest adverse to others or public good.
Pluralism: Multiple competing groups prevent any single faction from dominating.
Pure democracy: Citizens directly participate in government; small-scale; vulnerable to majority tyranny.
Republic: Government in which representatives are elected to refine public opinion and protect rights.
AP Relevance: Explains how Constitution manages human nature and protects minority rights.
Quote: “Liberty is to faction what air is to fire.”
2. Brutus No. 1 (Anti-Federalist, 1787)
Purpose: Warn against strong national government; defend state sovereignty.
What it does / Main Arguments:
Argues large republics cannot represent citizens effectively.
Warns Constitution gives too much power to national government → risk of tyranny.
Advocates small, local governments for accountability and liberty protection.
Key Terms / Definitions:
Anti-Federalist: Opponent of the Constitution fearing strong national government.
Tyranny: Abuse of government power threatening rights and liberty.
State sovereignty: States retain independent powers from national government.
AP Relevance: Shows debate over federalism, states’ rights, and limits on national power.
Quote: “The representatives of the people will be too few to guard the rights of all.”
3. Declaration of Independence (1776)
Purpose: Justify breaking from Britain; articulate philosophy behind government.
What it does / Main Arguments:
Establishes natural rights: life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness.
Governments get legitimacy from consent of the governed.
People can alter or abolish governments violating rights.
Basis for American independence and democratic principles.
Key Terms / Definitions:
Natural rights: Inherent rights of individuals (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness).
Popular sovereignty: Government derives legitimacy from consent of the governed.
Social contract: Agreement between people and government to secure rights.
AP Relevance: Introduces foundational ideas of liberty, consent, and government accountability.
Quote: “Governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.”
4. Articles of Confederation (1781)
Purpose: First U.S. constitution; create weak central government.
What it does / Main Arguments:
Central government lacks: executive, taxing power, national judiciary.
Requires supermajority to pass laws → slow.
Preserves state sovereignty, but national government weak.
Key Terms / Definitions:
Confederation: Alliance of states with weak central authority.
Supermajority: More than simple majority needed for decisions.
State sovereignty: States retain independent authority.
AP Relevance: Shows why Constitution was created to strengthen federal power.
5. U.S. Constitution & Bill of Rights (1787, 1791)
Purpose: Create federal government, protect liberties, balance power.
What it does / Main Arguments:
Creates three branches: Legislative, Executive, Judicial.
Introduces separation of powers and checks and balances.
Establishes federalism: power divided between national and state governments.
Bill of Rights guarantees civil liberties: speech, religion, assembly, due process.
Key Terms / Definitions:
Federalism: Division of power between national and state governments.
Separation of powers: Dividing government into branches to prevent abuse.
Checks and balances: Each branch can limit others’ power.
Enumerated powers: Powers explicitly given to Congress.
Reserved powers: Powers retained by states.
AP Relevance: Core framework for U.S. government functions and rights protections.
Quote: “We the People… establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”
6. Federalist No. 51 – James Madison
Purpose: Explain how Constitution prevents tyranny and protects liberty.
What it does / Main Arguments:
Advocates checks and balances → “Ambition must counteract ambition.”
Separation of powers prevents branch domination.
Federalism protects national and state interests.
Key Terms / Definitions:
Checks and balances: Each branch limits powers of others.
Separation of powers: Dividing government responsibilities.
Federalism: Shared power between national and state governments.
AP Relevance: Shows structural safeguards to protect liberty.
Quote: “If men were angels, no government would be necessary.”
7. Federalist No. 70 – Alexander Hamilton
Purpose: Argue for strong, energetic executive.
What it does / Main Arguments:
Advocates unitary executive for accountability, efficiency.
Weak or plural executive → indecision, inefficiency.
Executive must have energy, strength, and public trust.
Key Terms / Definitions:
Unitary executive: Single president with accountability.
Energetic executive: Executive capable of decisive action.
AP Relevance: Explains growth and importance of presidential power.
8. Federalist No. 78 – Alexander Hamilton
Purpose: Explain judiciary branch and judicial review.
What it does / Main Arguments:
Judges have life tenure → independence.
Establishes judicial review → courts declare laws unconstitutional.
Judiciary is “least dangerous branch” → protects Constitution.
Key Terms / Definitions:
Judicial review: Courts can declare laws unconstitutional.
Life tenure: Judges serve for life unless impeached.
Judicial independence: Courts operate free from political influence.
AP Relevance: Shows courts check legislative/executive power.
9. Letter from Birmingham Jail – Martin Luther King, Jr. (1963)
Purpose: Argue for civil rights through constitutional and moral reasoning.
What it does / Main Arguments:
Defines unjust laws → violate moral law or equality.
Advocates nonviolent civil disobedience to challenge segregation.
Uses 14th Amendment equal protection clause to argue for equality.
Key Terms / Definitions:
Civil disobedience: Nonviolent law-breaking to protest injustice.
Unjust law: Law conflicting with morality or equality.
Equal protection: All people entitled to same rights under law.
AP Relevance: Demonstrates applying Constitution to social change.
Quote: “Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.”
Key Themes Across Documents
Balancing Liberty & Order: Federalist 10, 51, 78
Factions & Representation: Federalist 10, Brutus 1
Limited Government & Federalism: Articles, Constitution, Federalist 51
Individual Rights & Equality: Declaration, Bill of Rights, Letter from Birmingham Jail
Presidential Power: Federalist 70
Judicial Independence & Review: Federalist 78
AP REQUIRED CASES
1. Federalism: Division of Power
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
Background:
Congress created the Second Bank of the U.S.
Maryland tried to tax the bank to assert state power.
Federalist vs. Anti-Federalist tension: Can states challenge federal authority?
Decision:
States cannot tax federal institutions → “the power to tax involves the power to destroy.”
Confirms Supremacy Clause: federal law overrides conflicting state law.
Necessary and Proper Clause: Congress can make laws to carry out powers granted by the Constitution.
Significance:
Strengthens national government in a federal system.
Supports implied powers: Congress has powers beyond those explicitly listed.
Case often cited for debates about federal vs. state authority, like healthcare or environmental law.
Key Terms:
Supremacy Clause – federal law > state law
Necessary and Proper Clause – Congress can use implied powers
Federalism – division of power between state and national governments
Implied powers – powers not directly stated but necessary
United States v. Lopez (1995)
Background:
Congress passed Gun-Free School Zones Act using Commerce Clause.
Student Alfonso Lopez carried a gun to school.
Question: Can Congress regulate guns at school under Commerce Clause?
Decision:
No, gun possession is not economic activity → outside federal authority under Commerce Clause.
Returns some power to states.
Significance:
First limit on Commerce Clause in decades → reinforces state power.
Marks shift in federalism toward decentralization.
Key Terms:
Commerce Clause – Congress regulates interstate trade
Reserved powers – powers kept by states (10th Amendment)
2. Civil Liberties: Bill of Rights
Engel v. Vitale (1962)
Public school in New York had students recite a nondenominational prayer.
Court: School-led prayer violates Establishment Clause → government cannot promote religion.
Significance: Reinforces separation of church and state in schools.
Key Term:
Establishment Clause – government cannot promote or favor a religion
Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972)
Amish parents refused to send children past 8th grade → claimed religious freedom.
Court: Forcing education past 8th grade violates Free Exercise Clause.
Significance: Shows that religious beliefs can outweigh general laws in certain cases.
Key Term:
Free Exercise Clause – protects religious practice from government interference
Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)
Students wore black armbands to protest Vietnam War → suspended.
Court: Symbolic speech protected under First Amendment unless it disrupts school.
Significance: Students retain free speech at school. Sets precedent for student activism.
Key Term:
Symbolic speech – nonverbal actions expressing ideas
New York Times Co. v. U.S. (1971)
Pentagon Papers leaked → government tried to prevent publication.
Court: Prior restraint is unconstitutional unless there’s immediate danger.
Significance: Strengthens press freedom; limits government control over information.
Key Term:
Prior restraint – government blocking publication
Schenck v. United States (1919)
Schenck urged draft resistance → arrested under Espionage Act.
Court: Speech causing “clear and present danger” can be restricted.
Significance: First case balancing freedom of speech vs. public safety.
Key Term:
Clear and present danger – speech that threatens immediate harm
3. Incorporation: Applying Rights to States
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
Gideon arrested for felony → no lawyer provided.
Court: Sixth Amendment right to counsel applies to states via 14th Amendment.
Significance: Guarantees fair trials → strengthens due process.
Key Term:
Incorporation – applying Bill of Rights to states
Due process – government must follow fair procedures
McDonald v. Chicago (2010)
Chicago banned handguns → challenged Second Amendment.
Court: Right to bear arms applies to states via 14th Amendment.
Significance: Expands individual rights; reinforces limits on state regulation.
Key Term:
Selective incorporation – rights applied to states case by case
4. Equal Protection & Civil Rights
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Segregated public schools → unequal facilities.
Court: Segregation violates Equal Protection Clause.
Significance: Ends “separate but equal”; major catalyst for civil rights movement.
Key Term:
Equal Protection Clause – states cannot treat people unequally
5. Campaign Finance & Political Speech
Citizens United v. FEC (2010)
Citizens United wanted to air a film critical of Hillary Clinton → FEC restrictions challenged.
Court: Corporations/unions can spend money in elections → protected speech.
Significance: Major shift in campaign finance → rise of Super PACs.
Key Term:
Independent expenditures – spending not coordinated with candidate
6. Legislative Representation & Redistricting
Baker v. Carr (1961)
Tennessee districts unequal → voters challenged “political question” doctrine.
Court: Courts can review redistricting → “one person, one vote.”
Significance: Ensures equal representation in state legislatures.
Key Terms:
Justiciable – can be reviewed by courts
Redistricting – drawing district boundaries
Shaw v. Reno (1993)
North Carolina created majority-minority districts → challenged as racial gerrymandering.
Court: Race cannot be the only factor in redistricting.
Significance: Balances minority representation with fairness.
Key Term:
Gerrymandering – manipulating district lines for political advantage
7. Judicial Review
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Marbury sued for commission → denied by Jefferson administration.
Court: Judicial review established → Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional.
Significance: Foundation of U.S. judicial power; balances executive/legislative branches.
Key Term:
Judicial review – Court can nullify unconstitutional laws/actions