Great Mississippi Flood 1927
After the Deluge
John M. Barry, November 2005
The Great Storm of 1926
Date and Location: In the latter part of August 1926, a severe storm hit much of the central United States.
Rainfall Duration: The storm lasted for several days and was followed by additional low-pressure systems that were moisture-laden.
Devastation: By September 1, water overflowed the banks of many streams, flooding towns from Carroll, Iowa, to Peoria, Illinois, a distance of 350 miles.
Extent of Flooding: On September 4, extensive floods affected Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana, resulting in the deaths of at least four individuals.
Spring and Early Fall Rains: Throughout the spring and into the fall months, rains continued, with each storm exceeding those of the previous decade.
Significant Rainfall: The most severe rain event occurred on Good Friday, with 6 to 15 inches dropping over more than 100,000 square miles, spanning from Missouri to Alabama. New Orleans experienced its highest recorded rainfall of 14.96 inches within 18 hours.
Historical Context: This disaster would remain the most significant U.S. disaster until Hurricane Katrina struck in 2005.
Scale of the Catastrophe
Impact on Population: The flooding impacted approximately 1% of the U.S. population.
Geographical Footprint: At its broadest point near Vicksburg, the Mississippi River had expanded into an inland sea approximately 100 miles wide.
Death Toll: Although the government reported 500 fatalities, estimates suggested that over 1,000 may have died in Mississippi alone.
Relief Efforts: The Red Cross provided assistance to approximately 650,000 individuals for several months, with many residing in makeshift tents, some sharing the narrow crown of a levee considered the only dry land for miles. Floodwaters receded slowly, with significant areas still submerged until September.
The Flood's Aftermath
Political Implications: The disaster led to Herbert Hoover’s ascension to the presidency. Hoover, known as “the Great Humanitarian” for his prior relief work during World War I, was then Secretary of Commerce.
Public Response: President Calvin Coolidge appointed Hoover to oversee the relief operation for nearly one million individuals displaced by the flood. Hoover’s management skills were notable; he coordinated rescue crews and camp facilities and ensured public awareness of his efforts.
Political Ascendancy: Hoover's actions led him to believe he would be the Republican nominee for president in 1928 due to the favorable media portrayal during the disaster.
Shifts in Party Allegiance: Hoover's ineffective handling of racial issues and the abuse of African-Americans in refugee camps led to a shift in allegiance from the Republican Party to the Democrats, primarily affecting support for Franklin Delano Roosevelt's future policies.
Changes to Urban Demographics
African-American Migration: The flood prompted a mass exodus of African-Americans from the South to urban centers like Detroit, Chicago, and Los Angeles.
Shifting Views on Government Responsibility
Historical Context: Previously, Americans did not expect the government to assist individual citizens in crises (e.g., the 1905 yellow fever epidemic in New Orleans).
Lack of Federal Intervention: During the 1927 floods, despite federal budget surpluses, no direct federal aid was allocated to flood victims. Hoover urged private entities to help, while Coolidge ignored pleas for assistance or even to visit affected areas.
Changing Sentiment: Public outcry for government intervention increased due to extensive media coverage of the plight of victims, highlighting a shift in expectations regarding governmental responsibility.
Help! Call the White House!
How the 1927 Mississippi Flood Created Big Government
Overview
Context: The 1927 Flood led to debates regarding the federal government’s role in disaster relief, marking the beginnings of a more activist government approach in America.
Calvin Coolidge’s Philosophy: President Coolidge, opposing activist government, believed that people wouldn’t notice if the federal government ceased to exist, asserting that state governments could provide necessary services.
Contradictory Realities: Previous presidents, Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, recognized the need for federal intervention amidst industrialization, while Coolidge’s worldview clashed with contemporary needs.
The Flood’s Immediate Impact
Hoover’s Leadership: After the flood levees failed, Coolidge appointed Hoover to struggle against the rising crisis. However, private charity could not cover the needs of affected citizens.
Public Demands: Amidst mounting pressure for federal assistance, Coolidge maintained his stance against federal aid, fearing it would set a precedent for government responsibility in disasters.
Public Criticism: The media coverage of the government's inaction prompted significant criticism, with Congress ultimately engaging with public sentiments to legislate disaster relief measures.
Legislative Outcomes
Federal Responsibility: The essential legislative act passed during Coolidge's presidency would outline federal responsibility for aiding flood-affected regions and established a board for national flood control measures.
Legacy of the Bill: Despite Coolidge’s reluctance, this milestone legislation shifted public expectations regarding disaster response and government intervention in such crises.
Contested Terrain: The Mississippi Flood of 1927 and the Struggle to Control Black Labor
Robyn Spencer - 1994
Socioeconomic Context and Sharecropping
Labor System: The flood affected numerous African-American sharecroppers, particularly in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta, who labored under oppressive conditions resembling slavery.
Cycle of Debt: Sharecroppers often found themselves in a cycle of dependency, living on credit from plantation stores at inflated prices. Failure to repay debts usually condemned these laborers to continued servitude under the same poor contracts.
The Impact of the Flood
Forced Exodus: The flooding necessitated a mass retreat from plantations, affecting labor relations and disruptively impacting the agricultural economy reliant on black labor.
Relief Camps Administration
National Red Cross Participation: The National Red Cross, in coordination with local authorities and the National Guard, established relief camps for homeless flood victims.
Racial Discrimination in Relief: The camps for black refugees were predominantly run by Southern whites, who operated with a degree of autonomy, often perpetuating existing social inequities.
Conditions in Relief Camps
Control and Coercion: Black refugees faced harsh conditions in these camps, where their mobility was heavily restricted, and they remained tied to the same exploitative plantation economy from which they had fled.
Labor Exploitation: The administration sometimes forced black laborers to work under threat and control, including surveillance by armed National Guard members.
Outcomes and Community Response
Public Awareness of Injustices: Coverage by figures like Ida B. Wells Barnett called attention to oppressive conditions, framing laborers’ experiences as akin to slavery.
Resistance and Exodus: As the situation became intolerable, many black laborers chose to escape these camps, inspired by a desire for more freedom and better living conditions despite threats and coercion.
Long-term Impact: The flood and subsequent relief efforts sparked significant demographic and social transformations, particularly impacting African-American labor dynamics in the South and leading to larger migratory patterns.
This article discusses the catastrophic impact of the Great Storm of 1926 and the subsequent Mississippi Flood of 1927, detailing the widespread devastation, the governmental response, and the shifts in public perception regarding the role of government in disaster relief.
General Outline of Main Ideas
The Great Storm of 1926
Severe storm's impact and flooding across central U.S.
Historical context setting this disaster as pivotal until Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
Scale of the Catastrophe
Significant population impact and breadth of flooding.
Estimates of fatalities and the role of organizations like the Red Cross in relief efforts.
Political Implications
Herbert Hoover's rise to prominence through effective disaster management.
Shifts in party allegiance due to handling of racial issues in relief camps.
Shifting Views on Government Responsibility
A historical shift where public expectations began to align with greater government intervention in crises.
Important People, Ideas, or Places
Herbert Hoover: His leadership during the relief efforts marked his political rise.
Calvin Coolidge: His opposition to active government intervention during disasters.
Mississippi River: Central to the flooding disaster.
National Red Cross: Provided crucial assistance in relief camps.
Argument Analysis
The article argues for a significant transition in the public's expectation of government intervention during natural disasters, which was a departure from earlier attitudes exemplified by the 1905 yellow fever epidemic. The influx of media coverage revealed the extent of human suffering and pressed the government to reconsider its role during such crises.
Specific Purpose and Examples
The article serves to illustrate how the governmental response to the Mississippi Flood laid the groundwork for future legislative measures regarding disaster relief, contrasting Coolidge's reluctance with the solutions sought following the flood. Examples from this period show a stark contrast between the expectations placed on federal authority during natural disasters compared to previous societal norms.
Connections to Other Historical Ideas
New Deal Programs: The legacy of changing government roles during crises was further shaped by the New Deal following the Great Depression.
Civil Rights Movement: The racial dynamics brought to light during the flood relief efforts foreshadowed the later civil rights movement's struggles for equality and justice.
Modern Disaster Management: Contemporary approaches to disaster recovery, rooted in federal responsibility, reveal the long-lasting impact of the 1927 flood on policy today.