AP BIO Cumulative

1.1 Lifes levels of organization define the scope of biology

  • these levels represent a heirarchy

  • starting with the biosphere, each level is less inclusive that the last.


Terminology

Biosphere: all the environment of earth that supports life

Ecosystem:all the living and non-living components of a particular environment

Community: all the living organisms in an ecosystem

Population: an interacting group of individuals of one species

Organisms: an individual living identity

Organ System: a group of organs that work together to preform a specific productions

Organ: an individual component of an organ system

Tissues: the “Fabric” that makes up an organ

Cells: individual segments and cells that makes up the tissues

Organelles: “organs” of the cells

Molecules: building blocks of everything

Atoms: building blocks of the building blocks.

1.2

Photosynthetic: producers who run on sunlight and provide energy to consumers

Key Roles:

  • Producers: plants and other photosynthetic beings that can convert and provide energy for the consumers

  • Consumers: those who CONSUME the producers and take in their energy through Autotrophy

  • Decomposers: cleanup crew for the ecosystem, worms, fungi, bacteria

energy flows through an ecosystem and is only lost as heat, which comes from movement, it can be lost by the producer, but its VERY litrle of a percent.

1.3

the cell is the lowest level of structure that has all of the required functions to be considered life. it can respod to its environment, develop and maintain a complex organization and so on.

C- Change, can change and adapt

O- Organization, can keep a complex inner organization

R-

R-Regulation, changing internally to combat external force

R- Reproduction, can reproduce

E- Evolve, can evolve over long periods of time

T-Transfer, can change energy

Emergent properties: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts; the “Emergent Property” of an IKEA scenario is the finished product.

Prokaryotic: NO nucleus, still has DNA (not organelle-bound), much smaller than eukaryotic. (usually, bacteria are prokaryotic)

Eukaryotic: HAS membrane-bound organelles, Nucleus holding the DNA. (usually, multi-cellular beings are made of Eukaryotic cells, and Eukaryotic cells are usually multi-cellular beings)

1.4 DN to the A

  • All life has DNA as a present code

All DNA is made of four interlocking DNA bases, A, C, G, and T. They each are in “pairs”: A: T, C: G. This remains constant, but they can be in any order to make anything from purple skin to rainbow eyes; there is a pattern for that. Like the word “RAT” three letters can move to make “TAR” or “ART”.

All DNA is the same across any animal/cell, so we could make bacteria to be used to produce inslulin by inserting a gene for human insulin into bacterial cells

“We have different instructions, but they’re written in the same language”

1.5 Diversity of life in threes

Vertical: the size of life/ amount

Horizontal: Age/Lifetime

3 Domains: 1- Bacteria, 2-Archaea, 3- Eukarya

Protozoans eat other eukaryotes, whereas Protists use photosynthesis

1.6 natural selection

Basically, it was proposed by a man by the name of Charles Darwin, who gave the idea in 1859 and discovered it with the birds on the Galápagos Islands. His idea was that animals would have a mutation, and that mutation would assist them in the environment; as it assisted them, this mutation spread because when the mutated organism survived, it would reproduce and change the offspring’s genetics

1.7

Biology is a discovery/ hypothesis based science

Discovery: describing nature and what is found in it

Hypothesis: trying to reason about nature and describe what is happening.



3.3 Cells make a huge number of large molecules from a small set of molecules

  • Monomers — units bonded together to make polymers

  • Polymers— Macromolecules made of many monomers bonded together

Four main classes of biological macromolecules

  1. Carbohydrates

  2. Lipids

  3. proteines

  4. Nucleic Acids

Dehydration reaction— monomers are linked into polymers by dehydration reactions

(kinda like how rice sticks together more with less water, and vice versa)

Hydrolysis reaction— polymers are broken down to monomers by the reverse process, hydrolysis

  • Water is added

3.4 Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates

  • Monosaccharides (single sugars)— Carbohydrate monomers

  • A monosaccharide has a formula that is a multiple of CH2O

-contains hydroxyl (OH ) groups and a carbonyl (double-bonded O) group

-may be isomers, such as glucose and fructose

-May be a line or a ring, depending on if it’s in water or not; if it’s in water, it’s in a ring, like in our body

If it has C, H, O and nothing else? It’s probably a Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates usually end in -ose

  • Bees make honey, a mixture of glucose and fructose ←wat



3.16 Nucleic acids are information-rich polymers of nucleotides


  • There are two nucleic acids --DNA and RNA

  • Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotide monomers composed of

- a five-carbon sugar

-a phosphate group

-a nitrogenous base: adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and guanine (G) in DNA; A, G, C, and uracil (U) in RNA



James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the shape of DNA; Rosalind Franklin was a major supporter and a pioneer in X-ray crystallography


DNA is double-stranded, and RNA is single-stranded.


  • Hydrogen bonding between nitrogenous bases creates the final structure of the nucleic acid

-RNA usually consists of a single polynucleotide strand

-DNA is a double helix

  • Two polynucleotides are twisted around each other

  • Nitrogenous bases protruding from the backbone pairwith eachother, A with T, and G with C.


Specific sequences of DNA make up genes that program the amino acid sequences of proteins


3.11 Proteins are essential to the structure and activities of life


  • A protein is a polymer constructed from amino acid monomers

  • The structure of the protein determines its function

  • The seven major classes of proteins are


- Structural: hair, cell cytoskeleton

- Contractile: producers of movement in muscle and other cells

-Storage: sources of amino acids, such as egg whites

-Defense: antibodies, membrane proteins

-Transport: Carriers of molecules such as hemoglobin, membrane proteins

-Signaling: Hormones, membrane proteins

-Enzymes: Regulators of the speed of biochemical reactions


3.12 Proteins are made from amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

  • Basic amino acid structure:


There are 20 amino acids found in nature

  • Essential — must be in diet

  • 12 nonessential— body can produce