Introduction to Science, Technology, and Society

Foundations and Empirical Analysis in Science, Technology, and Society

In the study of GECC 105a, Science, Technology and Society, a foundational exercise involves classifying statements based on whether they possess a scientific basis or are grounded in superstition. Examples provided for analysis include: 1. Whenever rain is approaching, wave your hard broom toward the rain cloud so that the air would blow it away. 2. Whenever your teeth aches, gargle water with salt to feel relief. 3. Whenever a black cat run across your way, bad luck will come along your way. 4. Whenever it’s full moon, lesser fishes are caught in the sea. 5. Don’t sing while cooking, or else your future spouse might die early. 6. When cooking meat, put together papaya so that it would become more tender. These examples serve to distinguish between empirical observations, such as the proteolytic enzymes in papaya tenderizing meat or the osmotic effect of salt water on oral pain, versus cultural myths lacking peer-reviewed evidence.

Defining the Essence and Methodology of Science

Science is defined as the human attempt to understand the natural world, with or without concern for the practical uses of that knowledge. It is a systematic process of discovering facts and relationships to create theories that make sense of the natural world. This knowledge is gained strictly through the application of the scientific method. Historically, science was known as the philosophy of the natural world, and the earliest practitioners were identified as the philosophers of the nature. The term science itself originates from the Latin word "scientia," which translates to knowledge. In a general sense, science refers to any systematic practice that is capable of resulting in a predictable type of outcome, continuing to increase human understanding by applying research to specific human needs.

Historically, the philosophers of nature were tasked with discovering the truth behind material and natural things. Their primary functions involved observing the world and the cosmos beyond, as well as identifying the fundamental differences and similarities between materials. This philosophical inquiry sought to answer basic questions such as what makes a tree distinct from a flower, and a flower distinct from a rock. By observing the essence of matter, they laid the groundwork for modern scientific categorization and theory.

Technology as Artifact, Knowledge, and Societal Enterprise

Technology is derived from the Greek words "tekne," meaning art or craft, and "logia," meaning a subject or interest. It is effectively the practical application of what we know about nature, utilizing scientific principles for the betterment of the human situation. Technology represents the human attempt to change the world by creating products that assist people. It can be categorized into four distinct dimensions: a) Artifacts or Hardware, which are products fabricated by humans like tools and machines; b) Knowledge and Methods, which involve a system of tacit and explicit techniques for making or repairing artifacts; c) A human cultural activity or profession, exemplified by civil engineers, crafters, and machinists; and d) A total societal enterprise, such as the concept of "American technological know-how," which encompasses research and development (R&D), invention, patronage, mass production, and mass consumption.

Scholars have provided various definitions of technology to capture its broad impact. Volti defines it as a system based on the application of knowledge manifested in physical objects and organizational forms for specific goals. Markert views it as the cumulative sum of means used to satisfy human needs and desires. Nye describes it as the total system of machines and techniques underlying a civilization and an expression of a social world. Ortega y Gasset provocatively defines it as the production of superfluities, a practice spanning from the Paleolithic age to today. Conversely, DeLillo offers a darker view, describing technology as "the seeping false-hearted death."

The Concept and Structure of Society

A society is a body of humans perceived as a community within the bounds of the same culture, socially united and dependent on each other. Unlike other social groups, a society supports its members in attaining needs or wishes that cannot be fulfilled individually. It may also refer to an organized voluntary association of people for religious, cultural, scientific, or political purposes. A society is distinct from a family, peer group, or business organization in three specific ways: 1. A society is larger than any other group. 2. Its members share a common culture, behavior patterns, values, and language. 3. It possesses longevity that exceeds the lifetime of individual members, as old members who pass away are replaced by new members born into and socialized according to that specific culture.

The Interaction and Co-Production of Technology and Society

Technology and society exist in a state of cyclical co-dependence, co-influence, and co-production. This synergistic relationship has existed since the dawn of humankind, beginning with simple tools and progressing to complex modern technologies. The academic discipline dedicated to studying these impacts is known as Science and Technology Studies (STS). A prime example of this co-production is the development of cellular phone technology. Society's desire for frequent, easy access to communication led to the development of higher speed processors, touchscreens, and mobile internet. In turn, these capabilities influenced how humans live, leading the populace to rely more on phones and request even more features, continuing the cycle.

Societal preferences also dictate the evolution of media players. Early personal music players utilized cassettes, which eventually seemed fragile and low-fidelity. This led to the adoption of compact disks (CDs). However, the rise of MP3 and other compact file formats made CDs appear too large and limited. Manufacturers responded by creating MP3 players capable of holding large amounts of data in a small form factor. This progression demonstrates how predictable societal preferences and the demand for convenience determine the course of technological events.

Intellectual Roots and Practical Benefits of STS

The intellectual roots of STS lie in the history, philosophy, and social study of science and technology. This field addresses controversial issues where technical choices interface with human values and influence public policy. STS is an interdisciplinary education for life, relevant to every field of study. It helps students understand both technical and social dimensions, fostering critical thinking, research, and communication skills. For students, it is an attractive minor or major that improves problem-solving and the ability to adapt to rapid changes in science and technology, making them better-informed citizens in a high-tech society.

Academic vs. Activist STS

Science and Technology Studies can be divided into Academic and Activist branches. Academic STS involves the scholarly study of science and technology through the lenses of history, philosophy, and sociology. it focuses on perennial and structural problems of human nature and the dynamics of science and technology. Academic STS provides the necessary information and framework for Activist STS issues. Activist STS, on the other hand, gets involved in current issues across a broad social spectrum. It builds coalitions through a four-step process: 1. Awareness of a problem. 2. Recognition of the need to take responsibility. 3. Drawing on external expertise. 4. Making decisions and taking actions through demonstration, litigation, education, or legislation. While its strengths include relevance and democratic empowerment, its weaknesses are that it can be ad hoc, emotional, or driven by "Not In My Backyard" (NIMBY) sentiments. Examples include activism regarding nuclear power, toxic waste, healthcare, and climate change action.

The STS Nexus: Relationships and Perspectives

The relationship between science, technology, and society is one of mutual feedback. Science informs technology, which is the application of scientific knowledge for a specific goal. Technology makes life easier and provides benefits that society enjoys. In return, society demands more from technology, and technology in turn demands more from science to advance capabilities further. This interconnectedness is highlighted by several thinkers. Buckminster Fuller noted, "You never change things by fighting the existing reality. To change something, build a new model that makes the existing model obsolete." Mark Zuckerberg emphasized that society needs more heroes who are scientists and researchers to improve people's lives. Carl Sagan pointed out a critical irony: "We live in a society exquisitely dependent on science and technology, in which hardly anyone knows anything about science and technology."

Questions & Discussion

In the context of practical exploration, students are encouraged to analyze household items such as computers, televisions, or cell phones by addressing specific questions: Why was it made? What did the technologist think about when making it? How has it helped people? How has it not helped people? Furthermore, the STS Nexus activity requires students to use drawing materials to create a visual perception of the linkage or connection of STS as a subject within their curriculum, reinforcing the interdisciplinary nature of the field.