SCH3145 Biomedical Ethics Revision Flashcards
Topic = Revision Lecture
Unit Learning Outcomes
By the completion of the SCH3145 Biomedical Ethics unit, students should be able to fulfill the following objectives:
Make informed practical judgements that are based upon a deep knowledge of sound ethical principles and motivations.
Critically analyse complex ethical dilemmas specifically within the context of the health sciences.
Develop an appreciation for the inherent difficulties and the frequent intractability of ethical dilemmas occurring in a pluralist society.
Demonstrate an appreciation of the specific goals of professionalisation, particularly as they relate to ethics in health, biomedical, and health care delivery settings.
Develop a comprehensive understanding and critical awareness of the philosophical foundations of ethics.
Core Subject Coverage Overview
The unit curriculum encompasses four primary ethical principles and a variety of ethical theories:
The Four Ethical Principles: Autonomy, Beneficence, Non-maleficence, and Justice.
Ethical Theories:
Act and Rule Utilitarianism.
Virtue-Based Theories.
Rights Theories.
Deontology (non-consequentialist theories).
Justice Theories: Including Utilitarian, Libertarian, Egalitarian, and Communitarian perspectives.
Additional focus areas: Human Ethics and Animal Ethics.
The Principle of Autonomy
Autonomy refers to the capacity of an individual to act freely in accordance with a self-chosen plan.
Definition: It implies the person is not being controlled by others and is not incapable of thinking or acting on their own plans or desires.
Beauchamp and Childress Framework: These scholars suggested three specific conditions that must be met for an action to be considered autonomous:
Intentionality: The action must be intended by the actor.
With Understanding: The actor must have a sufficient understanding of the action and its consequences.
Without Controlling Influence: The actor must be free from external influences that control their decision-making process.
Principles of Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
Beneficence: This is a statement of a general moral obligation to act for the benefit of others. It goes beyond merely avoiding harm; it requires actively contributing to the welfare of others and ensuring they are treated with autonomy.
Nonmaleficence: This principle obligates individuals to abstain from causing harm or evil to others.
The Principle of Justice
Justice is defined as the fair, equitable, and appropriate treatment in light of what is due or owed to individuals or groups. In essence, justice is fairness. The unit covers Material Principles of Justice and several specific theories of distributive justice:
Utilitarian Justice: Requires society to produce the maximal balance of positive value over disvalue. The goal is to aim for the least disvalue of all possible outcomes.
Libertarian Justice: Focuses on respect for individual liberty and freedom. Under this theory, individuals are responsible for themselves, placing the primary focus on the individual.
Egalitarian Justice: Posits that all people are equal and should therefore have equal rights and equal opportunities.
Communitarian Justice: Values the community over the individual and favors an approach that supports general welfare. In this view, the community should be the entity that decides "what is owed" to its individual members.
Utilitarianism (Consequentialist Theory)
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist framework divided into two main categories:
Act Utilitarianism:
Focuses on looking for the greatest utility in every specific situation.
Views rules as useful but expendable. Rules can be broken if doing so achieves greater utility.
The core question is: "What are the good and bad consequences which will probably result from this circumstance?"
The aim is always the greatest good.
Rule Utilitarianism:
Views rules as essential guides to making decisions and considers them non-expendable.
This approach is not only concerned with greatest utility in the moment, as rules are typically formulated with the achievement of long-term utility in mind.
Virtue-Based Theories
Virtue-based theories contend that if the right qualities are cultivated within a person, they will naturally act in an ethical way.
Focus: The focus is on the motivations and character of the person rather than the specific act itself.
Traits for Health Care Practitioners: These professionals are expected to cultivate and demonstrate the following virtuous character traits:
Compassion
Discernment
Trustworthiness
Integrity
Conscientiousness
Rights Theories
Rights are categorized as either positive or negative:
Positive Rights: These are rights to be provided with certain goods or services by others (e.g., the right to well-being or the right to clean water).
Negative Rights: These are rights that constrain others from interfering with an individual's exercise of that right (e.g., the right to liberty).
Critiques of Rights Theories:
There is often an overemphasis on autonomy and the individual.
The theories can become overly "legalistic," blurring the lines between legal rights and ethics.
Because of the heavy individual focus, these theories often neglect the role of the community and social relationships in determining and shaping moral rules.
Deontology (Non-consequentialist Theory)
Deontology, specifically Kantian Theory, posits that the rightness or wrongness of a human action is not exclusively a function of its consequences.
Non-consequentialist nature: Actions cannot be justified simply by demonstrating that they produced good outcomes.
Absolutism: It is an "absolutist" framework, meaning there are no exceptions. One must abide by moral and ethical rules irrespective of whether the consequences are good or bad.
Duty-based Ethics: This involves doing the right thing simply because it is the right thing to do, and avoiding the wrong thing because it is wrong (often described as "the principle of the thing").
Guidance: Adherence is guided by independent moral rules or duties.
Final Examination Details
Weighting: The exam comprises of the total unit marks.
Duration: The timeframe for the exam is hours.
Basis of Content: The exam is based on lectures (including guest lectures) and two case studies similar to those discussed in tutorials.
Exam Structure:
Section A: Short answer format containing content derived from the two guest lectures.
Section B: Case studies based on the lectures, readings, and tutorial content provided throughout the unit.
Marking: The number of marks per question provides an indication of the value and the level of effort required for the response.
Administrative Details: Students should check Canvas for assignments and final examination specifics.
Case Study Methodology and Formatting
When answering case studies, students should follow these preparation steps:
Read each case thoroughly; highlighting and underlining key points is recommended.
Plan the answer before writing.
Use notes to help structure the response if needed, but ensure they are clearly marked.
Be succinct and concise to manage the time limit effectively, ensuring equal effort is applied to both case studies.
Support all answers with unit content, specifically principles and theories.
Review the final answer to ensure the question has been answered thoroughly.
Required Structure for Case Studies
Answers must be written in full sentences with an introduction, body, and conclusion. Bullet points are not permitted. The following structure is mandatory:
Introduction (Outline the facts): Explain the facts of the case in your own words. Assume the reader does not know the case (e.g., "In this ethical dilemma…" or "Steven is a seven year old…").
Principles: Identify, define, and apply/discuss any of the relevant four principles (Autonomy, Beneficence, Non-maleficence, Justice).
Theories of Ethics: Identify any relevant theories, then define and apply/discuss them in relation to the case.
Conclusion: Provide a summary and a final decision, justifying that decision using theories from the unit.
Practical Presentation Tips
Follow a logical order determined during the planning phase.
Answer in full sentences only.
Write as neatly as possible; if the marker cannot understand the handwriting, they cannot award marks.
Current Events and Case Examples
Students are encouraged to review contemporary cases such as the Victorian court order involving a -year-old girl. In this instance, the court ordered the girl to undergo a bone marrow transplant after both the girl and her mother refused life-saving cancer treatment. This case serves as a real-world application of the ethical dilemmas discussed in the unit.