My notes
Translation Studies – Complete Examination Notes
Prescribed textbook: In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation (Third Edition) by Mona Baker (2018).
These notes follow the structure you provided and are based on the textbook. I have used simple English, definitions, explanations, examples and important examination points to help you study.
The aim is to understand the concepts and be able to explain them in an examination, not just memorise definitions.
CHAPTER 2: EQUIVALENCE AT WORD LEVEL
2.3.2.2 Strategies used by professional translators
1. Meaning of non-equivalence
Non-equivalence happens when a word in the source language does not have a direct equivalent in the target language.
For example, a word may have a cultural meaning that does not exist in another language.
Professional translators use different strategies to communicate the intended meaning.
2. Strategies used by professional translators
1. Translation by a more general word (superordinate)
Using a general word instead of a specific word.
This is useful when the target language does not have an exact word.
* It helps communicate the main meaning.
Example:
Source: Shampoo the hair.
Translation: Wash the hair.
Shampoo is more specific than wash.
2. Translation by a more neutral or less expressive word
Using a word that has a less emotional or stronger meaning.
This avoids giving the reader the wrong impression.
Example:
Source: He mumbled.
Translation: He suggested.
The translator chooses a less expressive word to avoid the wrong emotional meaning.
3. Translation by cultural substitution
Replacing a culture-specific word or expression with something familiar to the target audience.
The translator tries to produce a similar effect on the reader.
Example: Replacing a culturally unfamiliar food or activity with a familiar equivalent, when appropriate.
4. Translation using a loan word or loan word plus explanation
Keeping a word from the source language in the target text.
Sometimes the translator adds an explanation to help readers understand it.
Example:
Keeping the word sushi in another language.
Explaining it as a Japanese dish made with rice and other ingredients.
5. Translation by paraphrase using a related word
Explaining the meaning of a word using other words related to it.
This is useful when an exact equivalent is unavailable.
6. Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words
Explaining the meaning using words that are not directly related to the original word.
The translator focuses on communicating the message rather than copying the original wording.
Important examination point: A translator must consider the meaning of the word, its importance in the text, the target audience and the purpose of the translation. Not every word needs to be translated in exactly the same way.
Source: Baker (2018), Chapter 2, section 2.3.2.2, approximately pages 24–34.
CHAPTER 3: EQUIVALENCE ABOVE WORD LEVEL
3.2.4 Strategies for translating idioms
1. What is an idiom?
An idiom is a group of words whose meaning is different from the literal meaning of the individual words.
Example:
Idiom: It’s raining cats and dogs.
Meaning: It is raining heavily.
A translator must understand the intended meaning rather than translate every word separately.
2. Four strategies for translating idioms
1. Using an idiom of similar meaning and form
The translator finds an idiom in the target language that has almost the same meaning and a similar structure.
Both languages use similar expressions.
Example:
English: One good turn deserves another.
French: À beau jeu, beau retour.
Both communicate the idea that a good action deserves a good response.
2. Using an idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar form
The target language has an idiom with the same meaning.
However, the words and structure are different.
Example:
English: Carry coals to Newcastle.
German: Carry owls to Athens.
Both mean taking something to a place where it is already available in abundance.
3. Borrowing the source-language idiom
The translator keeps the original idiom in the target text.
This may happen when the expression is well known or has a special purpose.
Example: Keeping the English expression Out of this World in a translated museum advertisement.
4. Translation by paraphrase
The translator explains the meaning of the idiom using ordinary words.
This is the most common strategy when no suitable idiom exists in the target language.
* It is also useful when the target language prefers more direct expressions.
Example:
English: He kicked the bucket.
Paraphrase: He died.
3. Problems when translating idioms
Translators may experience difficulties because:
The target language does not have a similar idiom.
The same idiom has a different cultural meaning.
* The idiom may have different connotations.
* The idiom may be used in both its literal and figurative meanings.
* The target language may prefer a different style of expression.
Examination tip: Always explain that idioms cannot always be translated word for word because their intended meaning is often different from their literal meaning.
Source: Baker (2018), Chapter 3, section 3.2.4, approximately pages 80–83.
CHAPTER 4: GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENCE
1. Meaning of grammatical equivalence
Grammatical equivalence refers to how grammatical structures and categories differ between languages and how translators deal with these differences.
Languages do not all express information in the same grammatical way.
The important grammatical categories include:
Number
Gender
* Person
* Tense and aspect
* Voice
Your examination particularly focuses on number, gender and voice.
2. Number
Definition: Number is a grammatical category that shows whether we are talking about one or more than one person or thing.
There are two common forms:
Singular – one person or thing.
Plural – more than one person or thing.
Examples:
Singular Plural
Book Books
Student Students
Child Children
Woman Women
Translation difficulties:
Some languages make a clear grammatical distinction between singular and plural.
Other languages do not have the same grammatical system.
* Some languages also distinguish between exactly two items (dual number).
* Translators must avoid adding unnecessary information about number.
Example:
English: Three arbitrators.
A translator must preserve the information that there are three people, even if the target language expresses number differently.
3. Gender
Definition: Gender is a grammatical distinction that classifies nouns and pronouns as masculine or feminine in some languages.
Examples:
French: fils – son (masculine).
French: fille – daughter (feminine).
Some languages also classify objects as masculine or feminine.
Translation difficulties:
Some languages have grammatical gender, while others do not.
Pronouns may require the translator to choose between male and female forms.
* Adjectives, determiners and sometimes verbs must agree with the gender of a noun.
* The translator may lose gender information when translating into a language that does not express it grammatically.
Example:
English: The student is happy.
When translating into a language that requires gender agreement, the translator may need to know whether the student is male or female.
Possible solution: Use context or restructure the sentence to avoid an unnecessary gender choice.
4. Voice
Definition: Voice is a grammatical category that shows the relationship between the verb and its subject.
There are two main types:
A. Active voice
The subject performs the action.
Example:
The lecturer marked the examination.
Subject: The lecturer.
Action: Marked.
* Object: The examination.
B. Passive voice
The subject receives or is affected by the action.
Example:
The examination was marked by the lecturer.
Subject: The examination.
Action: Was marked.
* Agent: The lecturer.
Remember the difference
Active voice
The teacher teaches the students.
The teacher performs the action.
Passive voice
The students are taught by the teacher.
The students receive the action.
Why is passive voice used?
To focus on the person or thing affected by the action.
To avoid mentioning the person performing the action.
* To create an impression of objectivity.
* It is common in scientific and technical writing.
Translation difficulties:
Some languages use passive voice more frequently than others.
Some languages do not have the same passive grammatical structure.
* Translating every passive sentence literally can produce unnatural language.
Possible solutions:
Change passive voice into active voice.
Change active voice into passive voice.
* Use a reflexive structure or another natural expression.
* Maintain the original focus where possible.
Example:
English: English is spoken here.
Possible translation: People speak English here.
The meaning is maintained, although the grammatical structure changes.
Source: Baker (2018), Chapter 4, especially sections 4.2.1, 4.2.2 and 4.2.5.
CHAPTER 5: THEMATIC AND INFORMATION STRUCTURES
1. Meaning of thematic structure
Thematic structure refers to how information is organised in a sentence to communicate a message.
It helps the reader understand:
What the sentence is about.
What information the writer wants to communicate.
* How the information connects to the previous sentences.
Baker discusses Halliday’s approach and the Prague School’s approach to information flow.
2. Theme and Rheme
There are two important concepts:
A. Theme
The starting point of the message.
Usually appears at the beginning of the clause.
* It tells the reader what the sentence is about.
B. Rheme
The part that provides information about the theme.
Usually follows the theme.
* It develops or adds information to the message.
Example:
The student / passed the examination.
Theme: The student.
Rheme: Passed the examination.
Another example:
My mother / bought a new car.
Theme: My mother.
Rheme: Bought a new car.
3. Types of themes
1. Unmarked theme
The normal or expected starting point of a sentence.
In an English statement, it is usually the subject.
Example: Mary bought a dress.
Theme: Mary.
2. Marked theme
When the sentence begins with an element other than the expected subject.
It is used to give special attention to a particular part of the message.
Example:
Yesterday, Mary bought a dress.
Theme: Yesterday.
The writer chooses to highlight the time.
4. Information structure: Given and New information
Information structure explains how information is presented to the reader.
Given information
Information that the reader already knows.
Information that has already been mentioned or can be understood from the context.
New information
Information that the writer is introducing.
Information that the reader does not already know.
Example:
John bought a car. The car is red.
Given information: The car.
New information: Is red.
5. Importance of thematic and information structures in translation
Helps translators maintain the flow of information.
Helps maintain the relationship between sentences.
* Helps translators identify important information.
* Helps preserve emphasis and focus.
* Helps the translation sound natural in the target language.
6. Translation strategies
Baker discusses ways of dealing with differences in word order and thematic organisation.
Important approaches include:
Changing the grammatical structure: Restructuring a sentence to follow the target language’s grammatical rules.
Using nominalisation: Changing a verb or process into a noun to present information naturally.
* Using extraposition: Moving a clause or changing its position within a sentence, sometimes by embedding it in a larger structure.
* Changing the theme: Selecting a different starting point to make the sentence natural in the target language.
Remember: Translators do not always have to maintain the exact theme of the source text. Naturalness and the communicative purpose of the target text are also important.
Source: Baker (2018), Chapter 5, sections 5.1 and 5.2.
CHAPTER 6: COHESION
1. Meaning of cohesion
Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical links that connect different parts of a text.
It helps sentences and paragraphs fit together to form a meaningful text.
In simple English: Cohesion makes a text connected rather than looking like separate, unrelated sentences.
Baker uses Halliday and Hasan’s model, which identifies five main cohesive devices.
2. The five main cohesive devices
Five cohesive devices
Reference
Substitution
* Ellipsis
* Conjunction
* Lexical cohesion
6.1 Reference
Definition: Reference occurs when one word or expression refers to another word or expression in a text.
It helps readers identify who or what is being discussed.
Example:
Mary is a student. She studies at university.
Mary = the person being discussed.
She = refers back to Mary.
Types of reference:
Personal reference: Uses personal pronouns such as he, she, it, they and we.
Demonstrative reference: Uses words such as this, that, these and those.
* Comparative reference: Uses words that compare things, such as same, similar, different, more and less.
Importance in translation:
Helps maintain connections between people and things.
Helps prevent confusion.
* Helps the reader follow the text.
6.2 Substitution and Ellipsis
These are two different cohesive devices.
A. Substitution
Definition: Substitution happens when one word or expression replaces another to avoid repeating it.
Example:
I need a pen. Do you have one?
- One replaces the word pen.
Other examples:
I like the red dress, but not the blue one.
She said she would come, and she did.
Importance:
Avoids unnecessary repetition.
Makes writing smoother.
* Connects sentences.
B. Ellipsis
Definition: Ellipsis occurs when a word or group of words is left out because the reader can understand it from the context.
Example:
John likes tea, and Mary does too.
The words likes tea are omitted after Mary does.
Importance:
Avoids repetition.
Makes communication shorter.
* Keeps the text natural.
Difference between substitution and ellipsis:
Substitution Ellipsis
Replaces a word with another word. Leaves out a word or expression.
Example: I need a pen. Do you have one? Example: John likes tea, and Mary does too.
6.3 Conjunction
Definition: Conjunction refers to words or expressions used to connect sentences, clauses and paragraphs.
It shows the relationship between different parts of a text.
Five types of conjunction relations
1. Additive conjunction
Adds information.
Examples:
And
Also
* Furthermore
* In addition
* Besides
Example: I studied English and mathematics.
2. Adversative conjunction
Shows contrast or opposition.
Examples:
But
However
* Nevertheless
* Yet
* Instead
Example: She studied hard, but she failed.
3. Causal conjunction
Shows cause and effect or a reason.
Examples:
Because
Therefore
* Consequently
* So
* For this reason
Example: She was sick, so she stayed home.
4. Temporal conjunction
Shows time or sequence.
Examples:
Then
Next
* Afterwards
* Finally
* Later
Example: First, I woke up. Then, I prepared for school.
5. Continuatives
These are expressions that help continue the flow of communication.
Examples:
Well
Anyway
* Of course
* Surely
* After all
Example: Well, let us continue with the lesson.
Importance of conjunctions:
Connect ideas.
Show relationships between sentences.
* Help readers understand the flow of information.
* Make writing organised.
6.4 Lexical cohesion
Definition: Lexical cohesion refers to connections between words in a text through vocabulary and meaning.
It helps create unity by using related words.
Types of lexical cohesion
1. Reiteration
This involves repeating or using words that have related meanings.
It includes:
Repetition: Using the same word again.
Synonym: Using a word with a similar meaning.
* Superordinate: Using a more general word.
* General word: Using a general word to refer to something already mentioned.
Example:
The dog was barking. The dog was frightened.
The word dog is repeated.
Another example:
The car was expensive. The vehicle was imported.
Car and vehicle are related words.
2. Collocation
Collocation refers to words that commonly occur together.
Examples:
Strong tea.
Heavy rain.
* Make a decision.
* Brush your teeth.
Different languages have different collocational patterns, so translators must choose words that naturally go together in the target language.
3. Other important points about cohesion
Languages use different cohesive devices.
Some languages prefer pronouns, while others prefer repeating nouns.
* Translators must consider the language and the type of text.
* Cohesion can also be created through tense, punctuation and consistency of style.
* Cohesive links may connect written words with visual elements and layout.
Examination tip: Learn the five cohesive devices, their definitions and at least one example of each. This is an important area for explaining how a translator maintains connections in a text.
Source: Baker (2018), Chapter 6, sections 6.1–6.4, pages 194–228.
CHAPTER 7: PRAGMATIC EQUIVALENCE
1. Meaning of pragmatic equivalence
Pragmatic equivalence refers to maintaining the intended meaning of a message in a particular situation.
It considers:
The speaker or writer.
The reader or listener.
* The context.
* The intended meaning.
* Cultural background and knowledge.
A translator must understand what the speaker means, not only what the words say.
7.1 Coherence
Definition: Coherence refers to the way readers understand a text as a meaningful whole.
In simple English, coherence means that ideas make sense and fit together.
Example:
I was hungry. I went to the shop to buy food.
These sentences are coherent because the ideas are logically connected.
Factors that help create coherence:
Background knowledge.
Context.
* Understanding the situation.
* Understanding the writer’s intention.
* Logical connections between ideas.
Difference between cohesion and coherence:
Cohesion Coherence
Focuses on language links in a text. Focuses on the overall meaning.
Uses pronouns, conjunctions and repetition. Uses logic, context and background knowledge.
Mainly concerned with connections between words and expressions. Mainly concerned with how readers interpret the text.
7.2 Coherence and processes of interpretation: Implicature
Meaning of implicature
Implicature refers to the meaning that a speaker suggests without directly saying it.
The listener must use context and background knowledge to understand the intended message.
Example:
Person A: Are you coming to the party?
Person B: I have an examination tomorrow.
Person B does not directly say no, but implies that they probably cannot attend.
Grice’s Co-operative Principle
Grice explains that people normally cooperate during communication to make conversations understandable.
He identifies four conversational maxims.
1. Maxim of Quantity
Give enough information.
Do not give too little or too much information.
Example: Answer a question with the information required.
2. Maxim of Quality
Tell the truth.
Do not say something you believe is false.
* Do not say something without evidence.
3. Maxim of Relation (Relevance)
- Make your contribution relevant to the conversation.
Example: Answer the question that was asked.
4. Maxim of Manner
Be clear.
Avoid unnecessary confusion.
* Avoid ambiguity.
* Be brief and orderly.
Why implicature is important in translation
The translator must understand hidden meanings.
Literal translation may destroy the intended meaning.
* Cultural knowledge may be necessary.
* A wrong translation can create a different interpretation.
* The target reader must be able to understand the implied message.
7.3 Coherence, implicature and translation strategies
Baker explains that translators must consider five important factors when interpreting implied meaning.
Conventional meanings of words and structures.
The Co-operative Principle and its maxims.
* The context of the utterance.
* Background knowledge.
* Shared knowledge between the speaker and listener.
1. Conventional meaning of words and structures
The translator must understand the ordinary meaning of words and grammatical structures.
If a word is translated incorrectly, the implied meaning may also be lost.
Example: Translating modest means as a description of someone’s modest personality instead of their limited financial resources changes the intended meaning.
2. The Co-operative Principle and its maxims
The translator must understand why a speaker gives information in a particular way.
The speaker may communicate indirectly, and the translator must preserve the intended implication.
3. Context
Context means the situation in which communication takes place.
It includes:
The surrounding words.
The situation.
* The people involved.
* The purpose of communication.
A word can have different meanings depending on its context.
4. Background knowledge
Background knowledge refers to what people already know about the world, culture or subject.
Example: Understanding a cultural reference may require knowledge of the culture in which the original text was produced.
5. Shared knowledge
The speaker and listener may share information that is not directly mentioned.
The translator must consider whether the target audience also has that knowledge.
If the audience does not share it, the implied meaning may become difficult to understand.
Important examination point: A translator must preserve not only the direct meaning of a sentence but also its implied meaning, context and intended effect.
Source: Baker (2018), Chapter 7, especially sections 7.1–7.3.
CHAPTER 8: SEMIOTIC EQUIVALENCE
1. Meaning of semiotic equivalence
Semiotic equivalence refers to how meaning is communicated through different signs and resources, not only through written or spoken words.
These resources include:
Words and language.
Pictures and images.
* Colours.
* Symbols.
* Gestures and body language.
* Sounds.
* Layout and design.
A translator must consider how all these elements work together to communicate meaning.
2. Semiotic resources
Definition: Semiotic resources are the different tools or signs people use to communicate meaning.
Examples:
Semiotic resource Meaning or function
Words Communicate information
Images Show people, places or objects
Colours Can communicate emotions or ideas
Gestures Communicate through body movements
Sounds Create meaning and atmosphere
Layout Organises and presents information
8.3 Translating semiotically complex material
1. Meaning of semiotically complex material
This refers to material that uses more than one communication resource to create meaning.
Examples:
Films.
Advertisements.
* Comics.
* Children’s books.
* Cartoons.
* Picture books.
* Poetry containing visual elements.
Translation challenge: The translator must consider both the verbal and non-verbal information.
For example, translating a joke in a cartoon can be difficult because the joke may depend on both the words and the picture.
2. Important strategies in section 8.3
1. Strengthening verbal-visual cohesion (8.3.1)
Verbal-visual cohesion refers to the connection between words and pictures.
The translator must make sure that the translated words still connect with what the audience sees.
* The words should support the visual information.
Example:
A character points at a red dress and says, “I love that colour.”
The translation must maintain the connection between the words and the dress.
2. Resolving discrepancies between visual and verbal information (8.3.2)
Sometimes the picture and words do not match perfectly in the target language.
The translator must find a way to resolve the problem.
* The translator may change the wording while keeping the intended message.
Example:
A character asks a question that makes sense in the original language because of a visual scene. The translator may need to rephrase the question to make it understandable in the target language.
3. Replacing verbal-visual puns (8.3.3)
A pun is a play on words that creates humour or a double meaning.
A verbal-visual pun uses both language and images to create the joke.
* The translator may need to find a different word or expression that works with the picture.
Example:
A cartoon character uses the word “spring” to refer to both a season and jumping.
The translator must try to find a target-language expression that can work with the visual image.
4. Compensation (8.3.4)
Compensation means making up for a meaning or effect that cannot be transferred directly.
The translator creates a similar effect somewhere else in the text or translation.
Example:
If a joke cannot be translated in one sentence, the translator may introduce a different wordplay in another part to maintain the humour.
5. Sacrificing or undermining verbal-visual cohesion (8.3.5)
Sometimes it is impossible to maintain the relationship between words and pictures.
The translator may have to sacrifice some of the original effect.
* This happens when there are serious language or cultural differences.
The translator must decide which parts of the original message are most important.
3. Challenges of translating semiotically complex material
Words may depend on pictures to make sense.
Humour may not work in another language.
* Cultural symbols may have different meanings.
* Colours may communicate different ideas in different cultures.
* There may be limited space for subtitles.
* The translator may not be able to change the images.
* The layout may affect how the reader interprets the message.
Important examination point: A translator must not focus only on words. Pictures, colours, symbols, gestures and layout can also communicate meaning.
Source: Baker (2018), Chapter 8, section 8.3, pages 292–298.
CHAPTER 9: BEYOND EQUIVALENCE – ETHICS AND MORALITY
1. Meaning of ethics and morality
Ethics and morality deal with what is right and wrong and how people should behave.
In translation, they refer to the responsibility translators have towards authors, readers, clients and society.
A translator’s decisions can affect how people understand other cultures, individuals and communities.
9.1 Ethics and morality
1. Difference between ethics and morality
Baker discusses a common distinction between the two concepts:
Ethics
Often refers to rules and principles that guide professional behaviour.
Usually involves a community or professional organisation.
* Helps people understand what acceptable professional behaviour is.
Example: A translator must respect confidentiality.
Morality
Often refers to an individual’s understanding of right and wrong.
Concerns everyday decisions and personal responsibilities.
Example: A translator believes that discriminating against people is wrong.
Important: Baker explains that although these distinctions are commonly made, she uses ethics and morality interchangeably in the chapter.
2. How do we decide what is ethical?
Baker discusses different approaches to ethical decision-making.
A. Deontological approach
Focuses on duties, rules and principles.
An action is judged according to whether it follows moral duties.
* It does not depend only on the final result.
Example:
A translator must respect confidentiality because it is a professional responsibility.
B. Teleological approach
Focuses on the purpose or consequences of an action.
An action is evaluated according to the results it produces.
Example:
A translator considers how a translation will affect the people who read it.
C. Relativism
Suggests that moral values can differ between individuals, societies and cultures.
What is considered acceptable in one culture may be controversial in another.
Example:
Different societies may have different expectations about religious clothing.
Baker warns that extreme relativism can make it difficult to challenge harmful practices.
D. Universalism
Suggests that some basic moral principles apply to everyone.
These may include avoiding harm and resisting injustice.
* The way these principles are applied can still depend on the situation.
E. Consequentialism
Judges actions according to their consequences.
It considers the positive and negative effects of decisions.
One important form is utilitarianism.
F. Utilitarianism
An action is considered ethical when it produces the greatest overall benefit for the greatest number of people.
It considers the consequences for everyone affected.
Two forms discussed by Baker:
Act-utilitarianism: Considers the consequences of a particular action in a specific situation.
Rule-utilitarianism: Considers whether following a general rule produces the greatest overall benefit.
3. Why ethics and morality matter in translation
Translators have a responsibility towards society.
They must consider the consequences of their decisions.
* Their wording can influence how people view other communities.
* They must be aware of discrimination and injustice.
* They must think carefully about what to include, change or omit.
9.3 The ethical implications of linguistic choices
1. Meaning
Ethical implications of linguistic choices refer to how the words and expressions chosen by translators can affect people’s opinions, identities and perceptions.
The words used in a translation are not always neutral.
For example:
Calling someone disabled rather than using an insulting term shows how word choice can affect a person’s dignity.
2. Accuracy and ethics
Accuracy is an important principle in translation.
However, being accurate can sometimes create ethical difficulties.
The translator may have to decide how to communicate offensive, discriminatory or controversial language without unnecessarily changing the author’s message.
3. Gender representation
The translator must consider how language represents women and men.
Example from Baker:
The article Tour of Beauty describes a Rolls-Royce car using expressions such as:
She.
Loveliest baby.
* Bride.
The language presents the car as a woman and uses romantic and gendered descriptions.
This creates an ethical question: Should the translator reproduce the original gendered language, or change it because it may reinforce negative ideas about women?
Changing the language can also interfere with the author’s original message.
4. Representation of cultures and communities
Translators must be careful when translating:
Dialects.
Accents.
* Social identities.
* Cultural expressions.
* Different ways of speaking.
A translator’s language choices may influence how readers judge a particular person or community.
5. Responsibility towards the reader and author
Translators have to consider different parties:
The author has the right to express their views.
The reader has the right to understand and judge the message.
* The translator has personal and professional values.
* Society may be affected by the language used.
6. Ethical challenges in translation
Some challenges include:
Translating offensive language.
Translating discriminatory expressions.
* Gender stereotypes.
* Political and cultural differences.
* Maintaining accuracy while avoiding harm.
* Deciding whether to accept or refuse an ethically difficult assignment.
7. Important principles
A responsible translator should:
Respect the meaning of the original text.
Avoid unnecessary distortion.
* Consider the effect of language on people.
* Be aware of discrimination.
* Respect different cultures and communities.
* Consider the consequences of translation decisions.
* Avoid contributing to injustice and harm.
Important examination point: Translation is not only about finding equivalent words. It also involves responsibility because linguistic choices can influence people’s beliefs, attitudes and treatment of others.
Source: Baker (2018), Chapter 9, sections 9.1 and 9.3, pages 308–315 and 320–323.