First Wave Feminism in Australia: Waves, Citizenship, and the Bicycle Panic

Overview: context for today’s seminar

• The lecturer emphasizes a mix of seminar activities, AI (GenAI) policy, and a historical focus on women, bikes, and first wave feminism in Australia.
• Structure of the session:
  • Quick note on reading and writing in the context of current assignments and marking.
  • Refresh on sexology and defining gender.
  • Rapid dive into first wave feminism in Australia and the emergence of the 'new woman' and the 'Australian girl'.
• National literacy and higher education context in Australia:
  • Australian adults have patchy literacy levels today; literacy is a national concern in humanities and social sciences education.
  • About $50\%$ of Australian adults hold a bachelor degree; students in a Bachelor program are in a relatively small, high-education group.
  • Readings are sometimes intentionally challenging to develop comprehension, interpretation, and advanced writing skills; this builds strengths/weaknesses and helps articulate complex arguments.
• GenAI (AI) policy in AGS102:
  • There is a formal statement on how GenAI can and cannot be used within this unit’s site.
  • Students are encouraged to email or discuss on the discussion board if unsure about usage.
  • Emphasis on learning to write complex, original work before relying on GenAI.

Reading and writing as core skills at university

• Reading and writing are not just tasks to complete; they build comprehension, argument construction, and the ability to organize thoughts.
• Developing these skills is especially important in humanities and social sciences.
• GenAI is acknowledged, but students are encouraged to develop their own writing and editing capabilities first; later-year work may leverage more advanced tools.
• The course includes a policy on GenAI usage (AGS102 slide site) and guidance for inquiries.

Key theoretical refresher: feminism as an object vs. feminism as a framework

• Distinction from week five and earlier discussions:
  • Instead of applying feminism as a framework to an object (e.g., a phone), we study feminism as an object in its own right—feminism as something that arrived historically and can be studied as a social phenomenon.
  • Foucault’s concept: subjects, identities, and knowledges are historically and culturally constructed; thus feminism and womanhood are likewise historically situated.
• Dennis Riley’s formulation (historical contingency):
  • The formation of subjectivity around womanhood is historically contingent; you cannot write a universal history of feminism as if it always existed.
  • Feminism as a word and ideology developed at a particular time; earlier figures (e.g., Cleopatra, Joan of Arc) expressed ideas that align with feminist tenets but would not have identified as feminists themselves.
• Etymology and spread of the term “feminist”:
  • The word “feminist” is French in origin; attributed to French playwright Alexandre Dumas in 1872 (in a descriptive sense, not as a self-identified feminist).
  • By 1882, “feminist” appears in a letter by Hubertine Auclaire (Hubertine Auclerc?; suffrage advocate) in France.
  • By 1892, the term appears in Switzerland and Belgium; English usage in London newspapers by 1894; by 1905, it has spread to Chile, Argentina, The Philippines, etc.
• Distinction between “feminist” and “feminism”:
  • The term “feminist” has a relatively clear origin and usage; “feminism” has a murkier history with evolving meanings across regions and times.
• Waves (popular, not universally agreed):
  • First wave (late 19th century–early 20th century): suffrage and voting rights.
  • Second wave (1960s–1980s): women’s liberation, equal legal/social rights, sexual rights, bodily autonomy.
  • Third wave (1990s onwards): intersectionality, sex positivity, trans feminism.
  • Fourth wave and beyond: ongoing debates; the wave metaphor is debated and not homogeneous (feminists do not always agree).
• Important caveat on the waves:
  • Waves are debates and political maneuvers among groups, not a uniform, unified movement.

First Wave Feminism in Australia: context and differences

• Australia’s first wave differs from the UK/US because voting rights were realized earlier in many cases, but it did not create an automatic, uniform feminist movement.
• Local conditions affected development:
  • Resistance among some women to enfranchisement; voting was seen as masculine by some, reflecting gendered expectations about public life and citizenship.
  • The “new woman” emerged with more public visibility, but in Australia there were unique cultural/political factors at play.
• Key contextual factors shaping Australian first wave feminism:
  • Socialism and the labor movement: provided an optimistic, reformist atmosphere for improving white women's work and public life; the labor movement carried utopian hopes for equality.
  • Cultural politics: new concerns with sexual politics in urban settings; the new woman and the Australian girl reflect changing femininities tied to libraries, gendered space, and public life.
  • Public life and rational dress: women began to appear in public spaces, aided by access to libraries and the right to participate in public discourse.
• The “new woman” vs. the “Australian girl”:
  • The New Woman: independent, educated, radical change, challenging double standards; physically and intellectually autonomous; associated with changing dress and activity.
  • The Australian Girl: a localized Australian variant of female modernity, resisting purely British feminine ideals; appeared as more reckless, independent, and intellectually engaged; tied to the federation era and national identity formation.
• Cultural artifacts and discourse around bikes:
  • The bicycle acts as a catalyst for changing gender norms and public presence; shifts in dress were required due to practicality and visibility.
  • Cartoon depictions and medical concerns about women cycling (e.g., bicycle face, concerns about reproductive health) reflect moral panic and gendered double standards.
  • Contemporary commentary linked cycling with public exercise and a new form of femininity, while medical and moral commentators warned of supposedly harmful effects on women’s bodies.
• Bicycle-related anxieties and public debates:
  • ‘Bicycle face’ myth: women would appear strained while exercising; a caricature indicating moral panic rather than medical reality.
  • Fears about fertility, uterine displacement, and other health risks were used to police women’s public activity.
  • Rational dress movement: shift toward practical attire for activity, enabling mobility and public presence, though often accessible mainly to middle/upper-class women.
• Public visibility and media representations:
  • Cartoons and newspaper anecdotes illustrate how cycling and public sport were understood as indicators of modern femininity.
  • Visuals and texts tied women’s freedom to national progress, federation, and citizenship debates.

Australian citizenship, race, and the White Australia policy

• Citizenship as a contract with the state:
  • In broader Western tradition, citizenship includes rights and duties (taxes, military service, etc.).
  • For women, citizenship was historically framed via maternal citizenship: mothers’ contributions to child-rearing were used to justify women’s status and independence, but with ongoing subordinated status.
  • Maternal citizenship tied women’s citizenship to reproduction and motherhood rather than direct labor or military service.
• The Commonwealth Franchise Act (1902):
  • Granted voting rights to white women; simultaneously excluded all aboriginal peoples and many non-white groups from voting.
  • The Act codified White Australia policy ideas into formal law, aligning suffrage with racial exclusion.
  • It did not guarantee universal male voting rights; many men of color were also excluded from suffrage in practice.
• Racialized citizenship and white supremacy:
  • The new federation era institutionalized white supremacy through immigration, border control, policing, property, and voting rights.
  • The Immigration Restriction Act and broader White Australia policy were central to shaping who could be a citizen.
• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander suffrage:
  • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women gained suffrage later, with notable change in $1962$; this marks a significant expansion of the franchise but after a long period of exclusion.
• White suffrage rhetoric and race-based exclusions:
  • White suffragists used the idea of protecting a white political community to justify enfranchisement for white women while denying rights to people of color.
  • Public discourse often framed suffrage in terms of race, class, and national belonging, with visual and textual propaganda showing white, educated women as legitimate voters.
• Contextual example and visual representation:
  • A 1900s Australian Women’s Sphere illustration shows an educated white woman reflecting on why she cannot vote despite others’ political participation; this captures the tension between gendered and racial exclusions.
• The role of the CWA (Country Women’s Association):
  • While not universal across all regions, the CWA played a historical role in supporting women’s work in rural and regional Australia, linking to broader feminist and social reform networks.

The “New Woman” and the national project: literature, identity, and the Australian girl

• The New Woman as a transnational phenomenon:
  • Independent, educated, and seeking reform; used to critique conventional Victorian femininity and propel debates about women’s public roles.
  • In literature and media, she appears in various forms, including depictions that critique gendered expectations.
• The Australian Girl as a national emblem:
  • A localized expression of the New Woman tailored to federation-era Australia.
  • Embodied traits: intellect, imagination, quickness to feel and think, resistance to enforced maternity, and a sense of belonging to a nascent nation.
  • Seen as a symbol of an emerging Australian nation and its culture of citizenship; celebrated in Cortland’s discussions and Marguerite’s textual analyses.
• Foundational texts and evidence:
  • Marguerite (author studied in the unit) uses literary and cultural texts to demonstrate how gendered expectations were imagined and navigated during federation-era Australia.
  • The aim is to show how literature reflects evolving gender norms and national identity, rather than presenting a single, fixed history of Australian womanhood.

Timeline: key moments in Australian feminist history (selected)

• 1883: Married Women’s Property Act (South Australia) emerges.
• 1884: Victorian Women’s Suffrage Society forms.
• 1888: Tailoresses Association of Melbourne established.
• 1888: First women’s trade union in Australia.
• 1890: Working Women’s Trade Union in South Australia.
• 1891: A monster petition with around $30{,}000$ signatures for women’s vote.
• 1894: Women’s Equal Franchise Association in Queensland.
• 1894: Women win the right to vote in South Australia; stand for election passes in 1895.
• 1902: Commonwealth Franchise Act; white women gain voting rights, but it simultaneously restricts voting for Aboriginal people and people of color.
• 1903: Vida Goldstein runs for federal election (unsuccessful).
• 1908: Women gain the right to vote in Victoria.
• 1962: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women gain suffrage.
• Note: The CWA and other organizations intersect with the broader feminist movement, especially in regional Australia.

The “White Australia policy” and its implications for citizenship

• Federation as a turning point:
  • Federation marks the formalization of White Australia policy and racialized citizenship through immigration and voting rights.
• Policy implications:
  • Immigration restrictions were used to police racial composition; citizenship was linked to race as well as gender.
  • The policy reinforced white supremacy in law, governance, and social life.
• Visual and textual rhetoric:
  • White suffrage discourse often positioned white women as the preferred voters, contrasted against people of color who were excluded from suffrage.
  • Periodicals, slogans, and images reflected and reinforced these ideas.

The Tour de France and the bicycle: historical moral panics and gendered politics

• The bicycle as a technology that unsettled gender norms:
  • Made possible increased mobility and public presence for women, challenging the cult of domesticity.
  • Required new dress (rational dress) and a different public persona (the new woman).
• Medical and social panic around cycling:
  • Doctors and commentators warned of health risks: uterine displacement, altered menstruation, infertility, and even “onanism” linked to bicycle seats.
  • The rhetoric framed cycling as a risk to women’s reproductive health and moral virtue.
• Cultural responses:
  • Public cartoons and essays depicted women cyclists as transgressive, but also celebrated the idea of modern, independent women.
  • The Tour de France women’s races faced repeated exclusions (1955, 1984–89) due to concerns about women’s health and capacity; the women’s edition was reintroduced only recently (as of the early 2020s).
• Practical realities:
  • Bicycles made it easier for women to travel alone, increasing public visibility but also exposing them to social scrutiny.
• Australian context:
  • The bicycle narrative intersects with the federation project, illustrating how national identity and gender norms intersect with technology and mobility.

Connections to the broader program and upcoming seminars

• Seminar focus: what it means to be a suffragette in Australia today; group brainstorming on strategies for achieving voting rights in historical and hypothetical contexts.
• Takeaway messages for this week:
  • Australian feminism is intertwined with federation and nation-building; it has distinct features compared with British and American feminism during the same period.
  • The first wave reshaped understandings of femininity through the emergence of the New Woman and the Australian Girl, contextualized within a national project.
• Upcoming items:
  • Seminars will explore suffrage in Australia and how citizenship was contested along race, class, and gender lines.
  • Assignments submitted on time should be returned by the end of the week; late submissions or extensions may take longer.

Quick recap: key takeaways

• Australian feminism in the federation era is distinct due to nation-building, citizenship debates, and race politics.
• First Wave feminism in Australia involved the emergence of the New Woman and the Australian Girl, tied to urban, cultural, and political changes.
• The Commonwealth Franchise Act (1902) granted white women suffrage while excluding Aboriginal, Asian, Oceanic, African, and other non-white groups, embedding racialized citizenship into law.
• The bicycle era catalyzed new forms of female public life, triggering moral panics around health and morality but advancing gendered mobility and public presence.
• Concepts of maternal citizenship and the evolving understanding of women’s roles in the state highlight the ongoing negotiation between gender, state power, and race.
• The seminar this week will center on suffrage in Australia, with practical group activities and critical thinking about historical strategies and implications.

Optional reflections and prompts for discussion

• How do notions of citizenship and rights differ when gender, race, and class intersect in the Australian context of federation?
• In what ways did the New Woman and the Australian Girl embody a national identity, and how did literature and media shape those identities?
• What are the ethical implications of tying women’s citizenship to reproduction (maternal citizenship) in early 20th-century policy?
• How does the wave metaphor help or hinder understanding of feminism’s history and present debates?