BIOL 2010 A&P 1 Study Guide

Universal characteristics of muscle tissue.
Difference between extensibility (ability to stretch) and elasticity (ability to return to original shape).
Skeletal muscle: "voluntary" (conscious control) and "striated" (striped appearance).
Three connective tissue wrappings:
- Endomysium: wraps around individual myofibers.
- Perimysium: wraps around fascicles (bundles of fibers).
- Epimysium: wraps around the entire muscle.
Dystrophin relates to connective tissue wrappings and muscular dystrophy.
Parts of a skeletal muscle cell: myofiber, myofibril, sarcomere, sarcoplasmic reticulum, terminal cisternae, T tubules, sarcolemma, glycogen, myoglobin, triad.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium.
Sarcomere structure: basic unit of muscle contraction.
Sliding filament model explains sarcomere shortening.
Proteins in sarcomeres: contractile, regulatory, structural proteins; Z disc.
Motor unit and denervation atrophy definitions.
Neuromuscular junction events and neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) function.
Steps of action potential (depolarization, repolarization) and importance of calcium and ATP in muscle contraction.
Length-tension relationship and factors increasing muscle force.
Anaerobic fermentation vs. aerobic respiration (ATP yield and byproducts).

Two organ systems for internal coordination: nervous and endocrine.
Basic pathway of the nervous system: receptor, sensory neuron…
Nervous system divisions: CNS (brain, spinal cord) vs. PNS (nerves).
Sensory (afferent) vs. motor (efferent) terms.
Somatic (voluntary) vs. autonomic (involuntary) nervous systems and their effectors.
Sympathetic vs. parasympathetic autonomic nervous system comparison.
Neuron properties: excitability, conductivity, secretion.
Neuron types: sensory, interneurons, motor neurons; multipolar, bipolar, unipolar types.
Neuroglial cells with functions in CNS and PNS.
Myelin sheath's role; degenerative diseases impact.
Local (graded) potentials vs. action potentials (threshold requirements).
Action potential phases: depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization; refractory periods.
Compare neuronal and muscular action potentials.
Continuous vs. saltatory conduction; electrical vs. chemical synapses.
Steps of excitatory cholinergic synapse and neurotransmitter removal.
Summation: temporal and spatial forms.

Functions of the spinal cord; its length in adults.
Meninges and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) locations.
Spinal nerve structures: dorsal root, ganglion, ventral root; gray and white matter components.
Information carried by ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) tracts.
Structure of nerves and connective tissue: endoneurium, perineurium, epineurium.
Mixed nature of spinal nerves and rami.
Exit of spinal nerves via vertebral foramina; 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
Dorsal (sensory) and ventral (motor) root functions.
Cauda equina structure.
Spinal nerve branches and nerve plexuses: functions and homeostatic imbalances.
Reflex characteristics and terms: ipsilateral, contralateral.
Somatic reflex arc pathway; flexor vs. crossed extension reflex definitions.

Basic parts of the brain; structures/functions from lab.
White and gray matter locations in the brain.
Meninges protecting the brain and spinal cord.
Brain ventricles and CSF: production and reabsorption pathway.
Blood-brain barrier meaning and contributing neuroglia cells.
Functions of brainstem and diencephalon.
Motor tracts decussation locations; medulla oblongata functions.
Reticular formation characteristics; cerebellum function and arbor vitae.
Thalamus, pineal gland, hypothalamus functions.
Cerebrum structure: lobes, sulci, cerebral cortex functions.
Limbic system and basal nuclei roles.
White tracts connecting cerebral hemispheres.
Functional differences between association and sensory areas.
Identify locations of primary sensory and motor areas in the cerebrum.
Twelve cranial nerves (name, number, functions) and their pathways (ipsilateral, contralateral).