History Student Textbook Grade 9 Study Notes

Meaning of History and Prehistory

• Etymology: The word history is derived from the Greek term Istoria, meaning "inquiry" or "an account of one's inquiries."

• Defining History: It is the study of humans in the past, documenting their actions and experiences. Historians generally agree that history began approximately $5,500$ years ago, coinciding with the development of writing.

• Prehistory: This refers to the study of the distant past before the invention of the art of writing and recording. Archaeologists and anthropologists search for physical clues to understand early human life during this period.

• Relationship with Environment: A significant concern of history is early human interaction with the natural environment to produce primary needs such as food, shelter, and clothing. This process involved the improvement of production tools and the enhancement of produce quality.

• Facts vs. Opinion:

  • Historical Fact: Information or statements about the past known to be proven true and supported by evidence. History is an objective pursuit of truth, not a novel or mere opinion.

  • Opinion: beliefs held by a writer based on a specific viewpoint which cannot be proved.

  • Critical Thinking: Distinguished by the ability to separate proven statements from viewpoints.

The Discipline and Historiography of History

• Educational Purpose: History aids in understanding the present, knowing the past, and foreseeing future developments. It develops skills in collecting and analyzing information, fostering identity, and understanding democratic principles and nationalism.

• Historiography: The study of how knowledge of the past is attained and transmitted.

  • The oldest written history comes from China, dating before $1000$ BC.

  • Herodotus ($c. 484-425$ BC): Known as the "father of history," credited with the first use of the term.

  • Thucydides: Known for critical and accurate historical writing.

  • Leopold Von Ranke ($1795-1886$): The German historian who established history as an independent academic discipline in the second half of the $19^{th}$ century. He is called the "father of modern historiography."

• Ethiopian Historiography: Ethiopia possesses an indigenous tradition of history writing, originating from chronicles. It emerged as an academic discipline in the $1960s$.

• Historical Interpretation: The process of describing, analyzing, evaluating, and creating explanations of past events using primary and secondary sources.

Sources and Dating in History

• Primary Sources: Original materials contemporary with the events described. Examples include:

  • Artifacts: Monuments, tools, ornaments, coins (such as those of Enudybis), fossils, inscriptions, weapons, utensils, and building ruins.

  • Records: Manuscripts, chronicles, diaries, letters, minutes, codes of laws, court records, maps, photographs, and audiovisual materials.

• Secondary Sources: Information derived from primary sources, providing second-hand accounts. Examples include articles, textbooks, biographies, movies, and oral traditions.

• Oral Traditions: Information transmitted by word of mouth across generations. These must be cross-checked with written documents to ensure authenticity against distortion over time.

• Dating Units:

  • Decade: A period of $10$ years.

  • Century: A period of $100$ years.

  • Millennium: A period of $1,000$ years.

• Chronology and Calendars:

  • Gregorian Calendar: Counts time from the birth of Jesus Christ. BC stands for "Before Christ"; AD stands for "Anno Domini" (The Year of the Lord).

  • Islamic Calendar: Based on the Hijra (flight of Prophet Mohammed from Mecca to Medina in $622$ AD). BH stands for "Before Hijra"; AH stands for "After Hijra."

  • Ethiopian Calendar: Lags behind the Gregorian calendar by $7$ to $8$ years.

• Periodization: History is conventionally divided into Ancient, Medieval, and Modern periods.

Evolution of Human Beings and the Stone Age

• Theories of Origin:

  • Creationist: Asserts humans were created by a supernatural being (GOD).

  • Evolutionist (Scientific): Formulated by Charles Darwin ($1809-1882$), suggesting life resulted from gradual succession and variation.

• The Genus Homo: All living humans belong to the species Homo sapiens. Key ancestral stages include:

  • Homo habilis: The "handy human," considered the oldest human species. Fossils found in the Omo valley, Ethiopia.

  • Homo erectus: "Upright human" appearing around $2$ million years ago. Known for using larger tools, fire, and migrating out of Africa into Europe and Asia. Fossils found in Omo Basin, Melka-Kunture, Konso–Gardula, and Middle Awash.

  • Homo sapiens: "Wise human" appearing around $100,000$ years ago, characterized by large brains and complex thought.

• Hominid Discoveries in East Africa:

  • Ardipithecus ramidus: Found at Aramis (Middle Awash) dated to $4.4$ million years ago.

  • Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy/Dinkinesh): Found by Donald Johanson in $1974$ at Hadar, Ethiopia; dated to $3.18$ million years ago.

  • Sahelanthropus tchadensis: Found in northern Chad in $2001$, estimated at $6$ to $7$ million years old.

  • Taung Child: Australopithecus africanus found in South Africa ($1924$), dated to $2.5$ million years ago.

• Stone Age Subdivisions:

  • Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): Lasted until $9000$ BC. Characterized by crude stone tools (hand-axes), cave dwellings, and the discovery of fire.

  • Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): $9000$ to $8000$ BC. A transitional period with slightly improved tools.

  • Neolithic (New Stone Age): $8000$ to $4000$ BC. Characterized by the Agricultural Revolution, involving systematic farming, animal domestication, sedentary life, and the invention of the wheel, yoke, and pottery.

  • Ethiopian Neolithic Sites: Aksum, Lalibela, Chercher (Hararghe), and Metehara. Domesticated crops included teff, dagussa, nug, and enset.

Emergence of States

• Definition of a State: A politically organized body of people in a defined territory with a legitimate government and sovereignty.

• Essential Features: Population, Territory, Government, Sovereignty, and Recognition.

• Theories of Development:

  • Theocratic: States ruled by priests as religion developed.

  • Economic/Surplus: Elite classes emerged from agricultural surplus, gaining control over others.

  • Trade: Control over trade routes allowed village chiefs to gain power and collect tribute.

  • Conflict/War: Establishment of states through force by powerful local chiefs.

Ancient Civilizations of Africa

• Ancient Egypt:

  • Beginning around $3000$ BC in the Nile Valley; unified by Menes around $3200$ BC.

  • Governance: Ruled by an absolute Pharaoh (considered a god) assisted by Viziers (mayors/judges).

  • Hierarchy: Pharaohs at the top, followed by viziers, high priests, nobles, scribes, craftsmen, and peasants at the base.

  • Writing: Hieroglyphics ($3000$ BC) and the use of papyrus.

  • Beliefs: Polytheism, life after death, and mummification.

• Nubia (Kush):

  • Located in northeastern Sudan; existed from $2000$ BC to $350$ AD.

  • Meroe was a significant center for iron technology (gold, copper, silver).

  • In $350$ AD, the Aksumite King Ezana destroyed Meroe.

Ancient Civilizations of Asia

• Mesopotamia:

  • Located between the Tigris and Euphrates (modern Iraq/Syria).

  • The Sumerians built the first cities and used sun-baked bricks for Ziggurats (stepped towers).

  • Cuneiform: A complex system of ideograph writing developed around $3200$ BC.

• Persia:

  • Founded by Cyrus the Great ($c. 550$ BC).

  • Introduction of the first postal service and Zoroastrianism (founded by Zoroaster).

• India:

  • Indus Valley civilization reached its peak around $1500$ BC.

  • Development of the Caste System and religions like Hinduism and Buddhism.

• China:

  • First dynasty: Shang Dynasty ($c. 1700-1122$ BC).

  • Chou Dynasty ($1122-256$ BC) followed.

  • Confucianism: Philosophy of Confucius emphasizing well-ordered society.

  • The Great Wall: Constructed to deter invaders from Central Asia ($7,400$ km).

Classical Civilizations of Europe and the Americas

• Ancient Greece:

  • Culture centered in city-states called Polis (e.g., Athens and Sparta).

  • Achievements in philosophy (Plato, Aristotle), history (Herodotus, Thucydides), and medicine (Hippocrates).

• Ancient Rome:

  • Republic ($509$ BC) vs. Empire ($27$ BC – $476$ AD).

  • Known for the Punic Wars against Carthage, Roman Law, and the Julian Calendar.

• Latin America:

  • Maya: Peak $250-900$ AD; known for astronomy and tall limestone pyramids.

  • Inca: Capital at Cusco; builders of massive road networks; conquered by Spain after $1532$.

  • Aztecs: Capital at Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City); practiced pictographic writing; destroyed in $1521$.

Rise and Spread of Christianity and Islam

• Christianity:

  • Began in Palestine in the $1^{st}$ century AD based on the teachings of Jesus Christ.

  • Emperor Constantine: Issued the Edict of Milan ($313$ AD) granting toleration.

  • Schism of 1054: Split between the Roman Catholic Church (Rome) and Eastern Orthodox Church (Constantinople).

• Islam:

  • Founded by Prophet Mohammed in Mecca around $610$ AD.

  • First Hijra ($615$ AD): Muslim refugees sent to the Aksumite Kingdom; King Armah (Najashi) provided asylum.

  • Spread through three gateways to the Horn: Red Sea coast, Port of Zeila, and Indian Ocean coast.

Languages and Peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn

• Afro-Asiatic Superfamily:

  • Cushitic: Includes Northern (Beja), Central (Agaw/Bilen), and Eastern (Highland: Hadiya, Sidama; Lowland: Oromo, Afar, Somali).

  • Semitic: Northern (Ge'ez, Tigrigna, Tigre) and Southern (Amharic, Argobba, Gurage, Silte, Harari).

  • Omotic: Most speakers live in the Omo River basin (Wolaita, Gamo, Kafa, Shekkacho).

• Nilo-Saharan Superfamily:

  • Chari-Nile: (Anuak, Nuer, Berta, Kunama, Mursi).

  • Koman: (Gumuz, Koma, Komo).

Ethiopian States and Dynasties to 1300 AD

• Punt: Ancient maritime trading state known for exporting gold, ivory, and skins to Egypt.

• Damat: Existed south of Aksum; rulers used the title Mukarib.

• Aksumite Kingdom:

  • Nucleus at Aksum; reached height between $4^{th}$ and $6^{th}$ centuries.

  • Minted coins of gold, silver, and bronze; used the port of Adulis.

  • Declined after the destruction of Adulis in $702$ AD and loss of trade control to Arabs.

• Zagwe Dynasty ($c. 1150-1270$ AD):

  • Founded by Mera Tekle Haymanot with capital at Adefa (Roha).

  • Emperor Lalibela: Famous for the eleven monolithic rock-hewn churches.

• Restoration of Solomonic Dynasty ($1270$ AD):

  • Yekuno Amlak overthrew the last Zagwe king, Yetbarek.

  • Legitimized rule through the Kibre Negest, claiming descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.

Feudalism and the Early Modern World

• European Feudalism: A socio-political system based on land holding (fief) in exchange for service. Components include Lords, Vassals, and Knights.

• Renaissance: An intellectual "rebirth" emphasizing humanism. Key figures: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, William Shakespeare.

• Reformation: Religious movement started in $1517$ by Martin Luther, leading to Protestantism.

• Exploration: Spain and Portugal led voyages (e.g., Vasco da Gama, Columbus, Ferdinand Magellan).

• Industrial Revolution: Began in Great Britain in the $1780s$; characterized by steam power (James Watt) and factory manufacturing.

Trans-Atlantic and Trans-Saharan Slave Trade

• Triangular Trade: Connected Africa (labor), America (raw materials), and Europe (manufactured goods).

• Phases:

  • Piratic: $15^{th}$ century to $1580s$.

  • Monopolistic: $1580s$ to $1690s$.

  • Free Trade: $1690s$ onwards.

• Impact: More than $12$ million Africans were deported; led to depopulation and insecurity in Africa.

• Legitimate Trade: Replaced slave exports in the $19^{th}$ century with commodities like palm oil and rubber.

The Zemene-Mesafint and Yejju Dynasty

• Zemene-Mesafint (Era of Warlords): $1769$ to $1855$.

  • Began when Ras Mikael Sehul assassinated King Iyoas.

  • Power rested with regional lords in Tigray, Semen, Gojjam, and Wollo.

• Yejju Dynasty (Warra Sheh): Founded by Ali Gwangul (Ali I) in $1786$; center at Debre-Tabor.

  • Ras Gugsa ($1803-1825$): Reached the peak of Yejju power.

• Kingdom of Shewa: Independent power base established in Manz by Negasi; reached its height under Nigus Sahle Sellase ($1813-1847$) at Ankober.

The Age of Revolutions ($1750-1815$)

• French Revolution ($1789$): Overthrew King Louis XVI; abolished the Estates system.

• Napoleonic Era: Napoleon Bonaparte established a centralized empire and introduced the Napoleonic Code ($1804$).

• American War of Independence ($1775-1783$): The $13$ colonies declared independence in $1776$; George Washington became the first president.

• Congress of Vienna ($1815$): Long-term peace plan for Europe after Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo.