IR and Politics-Week 3

INTRODUCTION TO POLITICS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

WEEK 3. POLITICAL PREFERENCES AND PARTIES

Learning Outcomes and Today’s Content

  • The session focuses on the origins and formation of political preferences, covering the contributions of:

    • Karl Marx

    • Max Weber

    • Rolf Dahrendorf

    • Herbert Kitschelt

    • Ronald Inglehart

  • Definitions and explanations:

    • Left-right distinction

    • Maps of political preferences

Opening Activity

  • Individual reflection on:

    • Personal political preferences.

    • Placement on a mapping from right to left.

Voting Behaviour and Political Preferences

The Ideological and Policy Orientation of a Voter

  • This includes the decision to vote or abstain.

What is the Franchise?

  • Definition: The term "franchise" refers to the right to and ability to engage in elections (vote).

    • Individuals, typically citizens, are enfranchised when granted the right to vote.

    • Voting acts as a means through which individuals express their desires and form collective groups for bargaining purposes.

    • Franchise is supported by a legal framework, as voting is a constitutional right (either written or unwritten).

    • Example: In the UK, adults aged 18 and over are enfranchised.

Electoral Systems

Overview of Different Electoral Systems

  • The electoral systems play a crucial role in determining election outcomes and representing votes:

    • Majoritarian Systems (e.g., First Past the Post):

    • Tend to favor two-party systems.

    • Proportional Systems:

    • Include Proportional Representation, Alternative Vote, and Single Transferable Vote, often leading to party coalitions.

  • Duverger’s Law: Asserts that majoritarian systems typically produce two-party systems.

  • Trade-Offs: Discussed the balance between representation and accountability in elections.

Theoretical Perspectives on Political Preferences

1. Karl Marx: Class Theory

  • Main Argument: Social class determines political organization and voting choices.

    • Class in Itself: Descriptive categorization of societal roles (e.g., working class, capitalist class, intermediate groups).

    • Class for Itself: Political organizations that stem from class identity (e.g., socialist parties for the working class, conservative parties for capitalists).

  • Critique of Class Theory:

    • Class markets differ between small and large businesses; the worker/producer distinction provides a limited view on class.

    • Consumption styles are not adequately considered.

Class Struggle

  • Concepts:

    • Bourgeoisie (The Capitalist Class):

    • Owners of means of production (e.g., factories, land, machinery).

    • Examples: Tech billionaires, investment fund managers.

    • Proletariat (The Working Class):

    • Sell their labor for survival, consisting of skills, knowledge, and energy.

    • Examples: Amazon workers, service industry employees.

Understanding the Mechanisms of Class Society

  • Surplus Value: The difference between the value produced by labor and what workers are paid.

    • Example: If a worker produces goods worth $200 but is paid $80, the surplus value is $120.

  • Alienation: Workers become disconnected from labor, products, and social interactions.

    • Example: An assembly line worker focusing on a singular task repetitively.

  • Class Consciousness: Recognition among workers of shared interests, leading to collective action (e.g., unions).

  • Historical Materialism: Economic relationships shape the societal structures rather than being influenced by abstract ideas.

Modification of Class Theory by Przeworski & Sprague

  • Main Argument: Decline of socialist parties due to:

    • Their participation in elections limits revolutionary potential.

    • Seeking cross-class alliances undermines working-class interests.

    • Real-world Example: The ‘Third Way’ approach by Giddens and New Labour under Tony Blair contrasts social democracy with Marxism.

2. Max Weber: Wealth & Consumption

  • Argument: Shared wealth and consumption among similar economic groups lead to aligned political preferences.

    • Similar to Marx, highlighting the importance of economic interests in defining class.

  • Critique: Post-World War II societal changes made prior classifications outdated.

3. Ralf Dahrendorf: The New Middle Class

  • Argument: Post-WWII fragmentation resulted in a middle class with diverse political preferences, influenced by:

    1. Expansion of the welfare state (e.g., public healthcare, unemployment benefits).

    2. Rise in mass education and literacy.

    3. Emergence of the public sphere as a space for civic engagement.

  • Critique: Questions remain whether this adequately explains political preferences.

4. Herbert Kitschelt: Income, Education, Work Conditions, Gender

  • Argument: Democratic parties thrive in capitalist societies independent of strict socio-economic class links.

  • Two main kinds of voter preferences:

    • Capitalist Preferences: Linked to profits/interests and private sector.

    • Libertarian Preferences: Associated with wages from the public sector, typically observed in higher education groups.

5. Ronald Inglehart: Culture and Generations

  • Argument: In advanced industrial economies, economic factors lose influence as political preference formation evolves.

    • Cultural values take precedence over traditional economic concerns.

    • Emphasis on self-expression over economic survival.

    • Generational shifts in values also noted.

Mapping Political Preferences

Dimensions of Political Preferences

  • Are they dichotomous or continuous?

  • Economic Left-Right Dimension and Social Left-Right Dimension:

    • They intersect rather than simply overlap, creating complex political landscapes.

Intersecting Economic and Political Dimensions

  • Environmentalism: Situated within the economic left and extends to socialism versus libertarianism, liberalism, and authoritarian conservatism.

Political Cleavages

Definition of Cleavage

  • A cleavage refers to a specific division characterized by its form and shape (Zuckerman, 1975).

    • Distinct from simple disagreements or cultural divergence.

    • Related to expressive voting.

Features of Cleavages

  • Membership Size: Extensive and significant.

  • Persistent Divisions: Forming a hierarchical structure (Dogan).

Typology of Political Cleavages

  • Common divisions include:

    • North vs. South

    • Rural vs. Urban

    • Religion

    • Social Class

    • Culture / Ethnicity

    • Region (and foreign policy)

Typology of Cleavages (Lipset and Rokkan, 1967)

  • Influenced by two revolutions (national and industrial) leading to key cleavages:

    • Church vs. State

    • Dominant vs. Subject Culture

    • Primary vs. Secondary Economy

    • Freeze hypothesis suggests modernity led to a structural freezing of cleavages, despite evolving class dynamics.

Reasons for the Decline of Cleavages

  • Religion: Increased secularization.

  • Social Class: Expanding middle class, intermediary groups, and mobility.

  • Cultural/Ethnic: Cultural revolutions influence perceptions and allegiances.

  • Regional Dynamics: Globalization alters regional and foreign policy cleavages.

    • This trend is particularly relevant to developed Western societies.

Example of Declining Cleavages

  • Trends across various countries depicting declining indicators of class voting from 1945 to 1990:

    • Data Examples:

    • Sweden: 60%

    • Britain: 50%

    • Germany: 40%

    • France: 30%

    • USA: 20%

Current Trends in Political Cleavages

De-alignment and Polarization

  • Observations on:

    • Class De-alignment: Weakened allegiance of working-class voters toward socialism.

    • Voter De-alignment: Fluidity in voting patterns, with conservative voters shifting to other parties.

    • Party Polarization: Ideological convergence or divergence among major political parties.

    • Examples:

    • Conservatives aligning with Reform UK on immigration; Labour aligning with Conservatives.

Strategic Voting and Duverger’s Law

  • Puzzle: Are voters casting ballots for their first-choice candidates?

  • Electoral System Characteristics: Plurality voting leads to a winner-takes-all scenario.

  • Motivation: Voters tend towards strategic voting rather than expressing ideological preferences.

  • Outcome: Some parties may remain unrepresented in government.

  • Potential Solution: Consideration of proportional representation systems to foster a multi-party environment.

Strategic Voting in Practice

Data Example

  • Legislative Elections Results, St. Ives Constituency, UK, 1992:

    • Votes:

    • David Harris (Conservative): 24,528 (42.9%)

    • Andrew George (Liberal Democrat): 22,883 (40.1%)

    • Stephen Warr (Labour): 9,144 (16.0%)

    • Graham Stevens (Liberal): 577 (1.0%)

    • Outcome: Harris elected despite normative preference patterns; illustrates shift between sincere and strategic voting.

Data Analysis Activities

Activity: Analyzing Cleavages

  • Examine graphs depicting political cleavages across France and the US, noting differences and similarities in voting behavior and trends.

Cleavages Example: French Politics in the 1950s

  • Historical party affiliations and lines of demarcation between political ideologies.

Dimensions of American Politics in 2000

  • Analysis of the relationship between religious attendance and household income,

    • Groups: Differentiated by political alignment and socioeconomic status.

Issue Cleavages in American Politics 1972-2004

  • Breakdown of cleavages focusing on significant social and economic issues over the decades.

Summary of Today’s Lecture

  • Exploring types of political preferences, their causes, and critiques.

  • Mapping preferences alongside dimensions of political ideologies (left-right).

  • Observations on voting behavior in relation to different political systems.

  • Investigations into the decline of cleavages pointing toward increasing strategic and expressive voting.

  • Ongoing debates regarding voter de-alignment and the implications for party polarization and convergence.